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White Presbyterian
Introduction
Welcome to the White Presbyterian tablet here at Church in Missions! This site will investigate post-colonial ideas in the context of the church in mission and will examine the White Presbyterian church from a variety of angles, including the post-colonial themes of liberation struggles, hybridity, fragmentation, deterritorialization, and hyphenated identities. This is a public forum intended as a source for anyone who wishes to learn more about the mentioned categories and is also open to anyone who feels they can add to this ongoing discussion. However anyone who does wish to add to the discussion we kindly ask that you keep in mind and help uphold the academic integrity of the site.
A church congregation is a community. Every community bears individual characteristics. This project looks at the general trends of the Presbyterian church nationwide, without focusing on one specific congregation to make wider generalizations. The climate of each church determines much of the Presbyterian experience for local congregation members. Emerson states that "religious congregations are a specific type of organization - a private, volunteer organization...a mediating institution between the small private worlds of individuals and families and the large public worlds, such as politics, the educational system and the economy." [1] These groups go on to have other characteristics as well. Emerson quotes what is thought to be Martin Luther King Jr. in People of the Dream saying: "Sunday morning is the most segregated hour of the week." Emerson explains this to mean "that people are most racially segregated during the time of their religious gathers - is taken as such common knowledge that people usually do not give it much thought." [2] It is noteworthy that when "the racial composition of congregations is surveyed today, little seems to have changed since the civil rights movement." [3] Emerson estimates that Protestantism is about 78% white and his predictions include protestantism having "the lowest frequency of multiracial congregations." [4] "White culture tends to separate intellect and passion, often described as separating mind and body." [5] Emerson later explains that "White worship styles and musical forms typically reflect the ascendancy of mind over body. Sermons, homilies, and other forms of presenting religious messages are expected to be cerebral...less on style and more on the evidence and the logic of the presentation." [6] Throughout his entire book, A Different Mirror, Takaki writes about how whites in America have viewed themselves as superior. They felt all the ethnic groups coming to America should adopt their cultural trends. [7] The Presbyterian church suffers from this misguided legacy, and must, along with other dominant culture groups, exercise empathy and learn grace to build God's kingdom through mission, both locally and internationally.
In this post-colonial era, which is a generation past the civil rights movement, the church stands at a place to benefit from intentional reflection on post-colonial themes. Hopefully, this investigation will benefit the church, and God's kingdom as we seek reconciliation through the peace of Jesus Christ.
This site was designed with the assumption that the reader would have some foreknowledge of colonial and post colonial themes and issues. However Colonial and post-colonial issues are broad and often expansive and in academia thus far they have taken on a number of definitions that sometimes conflict. So to both clarify our understanding and usage of the terms of colonialism and post-colonialism, and to offer a brief introduction we humbly offer the following information.
Colonialism is a method by which an Empire expands beyond its own territories [8]. The classic example of an Imperial force that expanded using a strict and refined method of colonization is the British Empire. Colonization is not a new thing, but before we get too far into that it might be wise to first answer the question; why colonize at all? The typical expansion of an empire is best illustrated by the Roman Empire. The usage of heavy military force to subjugate the people, occupy the land and conquer the territories is a very expensive but fast and sometimes efficient way to expand an empire. Constant military expansion over vast regions of land over long periods of time quickly becomes counter productive as the cost of expansion outweighs the profits. Further, military rule over an extended portion of land generates a cumbersome and unwieldy local rule. Further still is the with the empires military stretched throughout its territories leaves the empire as a whole vulnerable to a direct military attack. Expansion on a large and constant scale demands a more cost efficient way to control far off territories. One such method is to leave in the conquered territories a group of loyal citizens who will enforce the rule of the empire while creating their own self sustaining community within the region. This is broadly known as colonization. The idea as stated earlier is by no means new. The Greeks, Egyptians, Vikings, and even the bold French all had their own various forms of colonization. The Imperial nation that was to set the hallmark by which all other forms of colonization are sized up by was the British Empire. Combining military, industrial, and population expansion into a honed machine the British Empire became the largest Empire the world had ever seen. It is no small wonder that the "Age of Colonialism" ended with the fall of the British Empire shortly after WWI. Exactly when the empire "fell" and so on is all up for debate. What isn't debated (relatively) is that the end of the colonial era ushered in the age of post-colonialism.
Post-colonialism is not your average academic jargon. For starters there is no by-the-book or widely accepted definition of the term. Today the phrase is used in so many different contexts that there is now a discussion on weather or not the term still has any valid meaning [9]. All that aside post-colonialism typically refers to a point in time after colonization. In the past this discussion would have taken a context within a global or large scale government viewpoint. More modern refinements of the term have greatly narrowed it down for one important reason. Post-colonialism takes into consideration the terms and conditions the colonized people were under and is therefore retroactively defined by it. The colonial experience for people in South Africa was different from that of the people of Hawaii. Thus both Hawaiians and South Africans have a different post-colonial experience. Discussion in terms of post-colonial ideas now seem to be heading into the local forum, and is even entering in may areas the realm of the individual. Generally what is at least being attempted to be established by Ashcroft and his associates in their work The post-colonial studies reader (2006) is to define the start of post-colonization as the moment of local government Independence.
So how does any of this have anything to do with White Presbyterians? Well I am glad you asked. White Presbyterians in fact have a very interesting role in the colonization of the North American Continent. Historically they stand on both the colonized and colonizer side of the fence. The Presbyterians movement was fueled by John Calvin and in its earliest history started its founding churches in Scotland. The Scottish were later colonized by the British and as a result of religious and political persecution combined with religious idealism, they Presbyterians moved on to the America's. The migration of the Presbyterians shifted them from being a colonized religious group in Scotland to become a British colonial force within what would become the American Colonies. From here i leave you to further explore the development of White Presbyterians in a post-colonial and colonial context, and if you don't agree with something we have to say, look it up! and do share what you find.
[1] Emerson, Michael O. and Rodney M. Woo. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. Princeton University Press Princeton, NJ. 2006. 5-6.
[2] Emerson 5.
[3] Emerson 23.
[4] Emerson 38-39.
[5] Emerson 135.
[6] Emerson 136.
[7] Ronald Takaki. A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America. (New York: Back Bay Books/Little Brown and Co. 1993)
[8] Ashcroft, A., (eds.)(2006). The post colonial studies reader. New York: Routledge.
[9] Ashcroft, A., (eds.)(2006). The post colonial studies reader. New York: Routledge.
Universality
Definitions:
The concept of universality is that "a particular culture is true for all cultures everwhere and for all time...ignoring vast differences between cultures" (Church in Mission class notes wiki). Typically the dominant culture thinks their way is the universal way. This is reflected and seen in politics, values, beliefs, styles of worship ect. The assumption of universalism is a fundamental feature of the construction of colonial power because the 'universal' features of humanity are the characteristics of those who occupy position of political dominance" (Ashcroft, 71). Historically, the caucasian race has been considered the dominant culture.
Universality for white presbyterians could be generalized as a "western, white minded" standard. This standard is often seen as being the obvious. Michael O. Emerson estimates that Protestantism is about 78% white and his predictions include protestantism having "the lowest frequency of multiracial congregations" (38-39). Therefore it should not be a shock that 92% of the Presbyterian church membership is white. This white culture is reflected in the practice, procedure and the ordination process. Therefore, ethnic presbyterians would be at a disadvantage assimilating to culture of the church unless they were to adopt the "western, white minded" stance.
In thinking about the concept of universality, it is helpful to understand a little about Euro-Centrism. Euro-centrism should be given a little consideration, especially when trying to gain an understanding of white presbyterianism. "Congregations are the places where Americans most often go to seek the meaning of life, to worship, to find direction, and to receive social support...the number one place Americans turn to when they have serious problems" (Emerson, 7). With congregations and religious traditions being almost their own worlds and considering all of the information here collectively, it is no wonder why universalities are entertained and continue despite our world becoming increasingly diverse world.
Some universalisms that white presbyterians may believe.
Some of the universalisms that are believed about white presbyterians by outsiders:
At the 31st Annual Racial Ethnic Seminarian Conference sponsored by Presbyterian USA in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The issues of Universality were discussed. The ordination exams and some of the polity of the church are culturally "white". Ethnic seminarians wishing to participate in this process must assimilate to white culture or at least think like a "white" person during the process.
Resources:
The concept of universality is that "a particular culture is true for all cultures everwhere and for all time...ignoring vast differences between cultures" (Church in Mission class notes wiki). Typically the dominant culture thinks their way is the universal way. This is reflected and seen in politics, values, beliefs, styles of worship ect. The assumption of universalism is a fundamental feature of the construction of colonial power because the 'universal' features of humanity are the characteristics of those who occupy position of political dominance" (Ashcroft, 71). Historically, the caucasian race has been considered the dominant culture.
Universality for white presbyterians could be generalized as a "western, white minded" standard. This standard is often seen as being the obvious. Michael O. Emerson estimates that Protestantism is about 78% white and his predictions include protestantism having "the lowest frequency of multiracial congregations" (38-39). Therefore it should not be a shock that 92% of the Presbyterian church membership is white. This white culture is reflected in the practice, procedure and the ordination process. Therefore, ethnic presbyterians would be at a disadvantage assimilating to culture of the church unless they were to adopt the "western, white minded" stance.
In thinking about the concept of universality, it is helpful to understand a little about Euro-Centrism. Euro-centrism should be given a little consideration, especially when trying to gain an understanding of white presbyterianism. "Congregations are the places where Americans most often go to seek the meaning of life, to worship, to find direction, and to receive social support...the number one place Americans turn to when they have serious problems" (Emerson, 7). With congregations and religious traditions being almost their own worlds and considering all of the information here collectively, it is no wonder why universalities are entertained and continue despite our world becoming increasingly diverse world.
Some universalisms that white presbyterians may believe.
- Wealth and stability equals happiness
- They believe in predestination
- White Presbyterians were apathetic to the abolition movement because it benefited the economy
Some of the universalisms that are believed about white presbyterians by outsiders:
- Well educated and wealthy
- Hold to traditions of hymns and uncomfortable pews;
- Fall into the same stereotypes as other Christians.
- They are the televangelists and campers at Jesus camp
At the 31st Annual Racial Ethnic Seminarian Conference sponsored by Presbyterian USA in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The issues of Universality were discussed. The ordination exams and some of the polity of the church are culturally "white". Ethnic seminarians wishing to participate in this process must assimilate to white culture or at least think like a "white" person during the process.
Resources:
Books:Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin eds. The Post-colonial Studies Reader, 2nd Edition.Routledges, New York, NY. 2006.
Emerson, Michael O. and Rodney M. Woo. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. Princeton University Press Princeton, NJ. 2006.
Takaki, Ronald. A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America. Back Bay Books/Little Brown & Company, New York, NY. 1993.
Websites:Church in Mission wiki webpage, class notes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29
Jesus Camp Movie website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29
.
Difference
Overview:
To better understand some of the universalities of White Presbyterianism, differences should also be explored. While there are differences in all races, all congregations, all denominations and religions some of the differences of white presbyterians in comparison to other cultures are explored here. Michael Emerson explains some of the diversity and worship style differences in his book People of the Dream explaining that white protestants are less likely to be in a racially diverse congregation than whites of a Catholic or other tradition (87). "For whites, worship services in interracial congregations tend to last longer than do those of their counterparts in white congregations" (128).
Cultural differences are also highlighted by Emerson by using generalizations from Ronald Takaki and Thomas Kochman that "(b)oth cultures have their main ways of interacting, their unique forms of music, their own institutions, their own unique problems, and their own value systems and ways of looking at the world; people in both interact predominately with people in their own racial group" and goes on to explain that "white culture tends to separate intellect and passion, often described as separating mind and body". He later explains that "White worship styles and musical forms typically reflect the ascendancy of mind over body. Sermons, homilies, and other forms of presenting religious messages are expected to be cerebral...less on style and more on the evidence and the logic of the presentation" (135-136).
The Presbyterian church provides information on-line at pcusa.org to help provide an description of what a multi-cultural church is and how a church would go about becoming multi-cultural:
Resources:
To better understand some of the universalities of White Presbyterianism, differences should also be explored. While there are differences in all races, all congregations, all denominations and religions some of the differences of white presbyterians in comparison to other cultures are explored here. Michael Emerson explains some of the diversity and worship style differences in his book People of the Dream explaining that white protestants are less likely to be in a racially diverse congregation than whites of a Catholic or other tradition (87). "For whites, worship services in interracial congregations tend to last longer than do those of their counterparts in white congregations" (128).
Cultural differences are also highlighted by Emerson by using generalizations from Ronald Takaki and Thomas Kochman that "(b)oth cultures have their main ways of interacting, their unique forms of music, their own institutions, their own unique problems, and their own value systems and ways of looking at the world; people in both interact predominately with people in their own racial group" and goes on to explain that "white culture tends to separate intellect and passion, often described as separating mind and body". He later explains that "White worship styles and musical forms typically reflect the ascendancy of mind over body. Sermons, homilies, and other forms of presenting religious messages are expected to be cerebral...less on style and more on the evidence and the logic of the presentation" (135-136).The Presbyterian church provides information on-line at pcusa.org to help provide an description of what a multi-cultural church is and how a church would go about becoming multi-cultural:
A Multicultural Church is a congregation that intentionally seeks to recognize, celebrate and incorporate a diverse membership:
- in worship by using all-inclusive music, languages, arts and theological expressions,
- in a creative and meaningful evangelism by providing the good news in a cup that people recognize with great respect and appreciation for their racial and cultural backgrounds,
- and in leadership by intentionally and willingly sharing power and resources and advocating for justice and equal representation in sessions, church committees and executive positions.
How to Become a Multicultural church:While this provides an excellent starting point, it is questionable if a person who is unaware of the nuances of differences or doesn't understand the differences in or definition of "all-inclusive music..." Would a person who has been only aware of a white perspective be able to follow through on or even begin ot effectively impliment the above suggestions without at least have a taste of euro-centrism attached?
- By preaching the good news to all
- By embracing diversity
- By reflecting diversity in worship
- By sharing power
- By hosting strangers and aliens
- By breaking the barriers of race and fear
Resources:
Books:Emerson, Michael O. and Rodney M. Woo. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. Princeton University Press Princeton, NJ. 2006.Websites:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29
Representation and Resistance
Description
As a post-colonialist topic, representation is the way in which a dominant culture has told the colonized country who and what they are, usually through literature and art. The dominant, colonizing culture represents others to themselves and the rest of the world. Resistance is the colonized culture declaring for themselves who they are, resisting the inaccurate representations.[1] It is their "insistance on the right to see the community's history whole, coherently, integrally."[2]
As Americans, white Presbyterians are part of one of the dominant, colonizing nations of the world.
Stories
Historically, Presbyterians came to America from England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. [3] Some of the first settlers, with the Virginia Company, were Presbyterians. [4]
As an example of a white Presbyterian acting as the colonizer, we turn to President Andrew Jackson. As the son of Scotch-Irish Presbyterian immigrants, Jackson was well known for his Indian removal plan. He claimed his actions toward the Indians was "moral and inevitable," and he "maintained a legal and moral posture" of superiority while removing more than 70,000 Native Americans from their lands.[5] He justified his actions by claiming "that efforts to civilize the Indians had failed". [6] Jackson claimed to care for the Indians as a father would, seeking their best interests while pushing them off their lands. [7] He continued to make treaties with the Indians that he had no intention of keeping. [8]
Dreams
As someone who has attended a white Presbyterian Church most of my life, these concepts of colonialism and post-colonialism in general are new to me. My hope and dream is that more white Presbyterians could learn about the effects that their ancestors had on the colonies. The atrocities committed, both purposefully and unintentionally, need to be seen for what they are. Andrew Jackson seems to have deluded himself in many ways, and I hope that white Presbyterians can learn from their history and be more open-minded toward minority groups. My dream is that they could learn to be a more inclusive society that empowers people to find their identity and proclaim it proudly, instead of being bossy and arrogant in telling people who they are.
“There was opposition to the plan of Union among Black Presbyterians because of the segregated church government provisions. Francis Grimké, a Black PCUSA pastor in Washington, D. C. , opposed the proposal because he thought it allowed the PCUSA Presbyterians to capitulate to an increasing tide of racial hatred that was prevalent in the nation.He argued that that the church had standards other than expediency.”[9]
[1] Bill Ashcroft, ed. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. (New York: Routledge 2006) 93.
[2] Edward W. Said, "Resistance, Opposition and Representation", in The Post-Colonial Studies Reader.
[3] Ronald Takaki A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York: Back Bay Books, Little Brown 1993) 88.
[4] Charles Agustus Briggs. American Presbyterianism. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1885) 87.
[5] Briggs 131.
[6] Takaki 87.
[7] Takaki 87.
[8] Takaki 95, 101.
[9] Coalter, Milton J, The Diversity of Discipleship, page 194
Nationalism and Education
Description
Presbyterians leaving England and Scotland for a life in the new land, saw their story in connection with the exodus in the Bible. Strongly influences by the reformed theology of God covenanting with his people, they came to believe that the States was chosen nation by God.
The English Puritans believed that if they could reshape the political and church life of the nation, God’s blessing would come upon the land instead of war and famine. But this could only happen if they built and reformed the nation to be a nation in obedience to God. Concern to achieve greater social justice for humankind has therefore been a strong part of the Presbyterian and Reformed churches, together with a strong emphasis on individual repentance to holiness.
In time the covenant aspect has been watered out, and we are left with a strong emphasis on American Exceptionalism. By the time of the civil war, the both sides claimed to be on God’s side.
The legacy of the chosen nation formed the Presbyterian immigrants together with other groups to become Americans. The doctrine of “manifest destiny” embraced a belief in American Anglo-Saxon superiority – the expansion of Jefferson’s homogeneous republic and Franklin’s America of “the lovely white” By the time of the westward expansion and the war against Mexico in the 1840s, the war was seen not as colonialism and forcing the native people to leave their homeland, but as a justified mean to the expansion of an enlightened and chosen nation. ““Just as the civilizations of antiquity declined, so too would ‘savagery’ make way for a new American civilization as it moved westwards following the course of heavenly bodies. In this sense, though a subject to be celebrated, the Indian was a ghost in the making: a notion informed by the political realities of the day.” [1]
When it came to education The Presbyterian Church in the USA assembly’s philosophy of linking church schools and congregational organizational development grew into a system for meeting the needs of an educated clergy. The system started with the establishment of both “parochial” (or day) schools and boarding schools. These provided a complete program of education that allowed individuals to acquire all of their formal education through the denominational schools. At one time, there were over 157 Presbyterian institutions for Black education sponsored by the PCUSA”
The White Presbyterian churchs emphasis on social action is seen here. They value education, and especially the teaching of the Scriptures.
Stories
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, there was a growing notion amongst Presbyterians and Christians in general that America was going downhill. The great dream of America as a Christian nation had ended up becoming the world’s first secular state. In the very core of the beliefs of the people, the republic was to be a Christian nation, and it the first amendment had not emphasized this. Many perceived Jefferson as an infidel and opposed to the idea of America as a Christian Nation. There was a general concern that America needed to be reclaimed to God, if not to be under his judgment. America was God’s elected Nation, on display as a witness to the rest of the world. This led to the Second Great Awakening with a strong emphasis on personal repentance and conversion, where the Presbyterian Minister Charles G. Finney was a central figure. This also led to the strong emphasis on transformation of the society and social justice that has been a strong part of the Presbyterian history. For America to really be the nation God had chosen it to be, it needed to be a holy nation. The nationalism amongst the white Presbyterians were closely tied with the fundamental understanding of America as a Christian Nation.
Since America was elected by God to be a light to the nations, and the first nation founded on the natural order of government, the democracy, it also had a special mission to the world. The strong national identity of choseness, created a binarism towards other countries “Given this bifurcated view of the world that frequently drove the nation's self-understanding, the U.S. often sought to transform the world -- witness the great missionary crusades at the turn of the twentieth century and the decision to enter World War I ‘to make the world safe for democracy.’” [2]
These underlying American myths continue to define and influence the nation, and is a heritage from the Puritans. After the second world war the strong anticommunist movement must be seen in light of this. “The U.S. inherited the Puritans' conviction that they had a covenant with God to create a righteous "city on a hill" that would serve as an example to the nations and lead them to embody the ideals of freedom, democracy, and civil liberties which were expressed in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. This conviction, often designated "Manifest Destiny," tended to blur the lines between the dominant Protestant Christianity and the nation and its policies. That is, the nation wa
s seen as moral and consistently altruistic in its motives and actions, and other nations were believed to manifest acquisitiveness and selfishness.”[3]
Dreams
Presbyterians leaving England and Scotland for a life in the new land, saw their story in connection with the exodus in the Bible. Strongly influences by the reformed theology of God covenanting with his people, they came to believe that the States was chosen nation by God.
The English Puritans believed that if they could reshape the political and church life of the nation, God’s blessing would come upon the land instead of war and famine. But this could only happen if they built and reformed the nation to be a nation in obedience to God. Concern to achieve greater social justice for humankind has therefore been a strong part of the Presbyterian and Reformed churches, together with a strong emphasis on individual repentance to holiness.
In time the covenant aspect has been watered out, and we are left with a strong emphasis on American Exceptionalism. By the time of the civil war, the both sides claimed to be on God’s side.
The legacy of the chosen nation formed the Presbyterian immigrants together with other groups to become Americans. The doctrine of “manifest destiny” embraced a belief in American Anglo-Saxon superiority – the expansion of Jefferson’s homogeneous republic and Franklin’s America of “the lovely white” By the time of the westward expansion and the war against Mexico in the 1840s, the war was seen not as colonialism and forcing the native people to leave their homeland, but as a justified mean to the expansion of an enlightened and chosen nation. ““Just as the civilizations of antiquity declined, so too would ‘savagery’ make way for a new American civilization as it moved westwards following the course of heavenly bodies. In this sense, though a subject to be celebrated, the Indian was a ghost in the making: a notion informed by the political realities of the day.” [1]
When it came to education The Presbyterian Church in the USA assembly’s philosophy of linking church schools and congregational organizational development grew into a system for meeting the needs of an educated clergy. The system started with the establishment of both “parochial” (or day) schools and boarding schools. These provided a complete program of education that allowed individuals to acquire all of their formal education through the denominational schools. At one time, there were over 157 Presbyterian institutions for Black education sponsored by the PCUSA”
The White Presbyterian churchs emphasis on social action is seen here. They value education, and especially the teaching of the Scriptures.
Stories
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, there was a growing notion amongst Presbyterians and Christians in general that America was going downhill. The great dream of America as a Christian nation had ended up becoming the world’s first secular state. In the very core of the beliefs of the people, the republic was to be a Christian nation, and it the first amendment had not emphasized this. Many perceived Jefferson as an infidel and opposed to the idea of America as a Christian Nation. There was a general concern that America needed to be reclaimed to God, if not to be under his judgment. America was God’s elected Nation, on display as a witness to the rest of the world. This led to the Second Great Awakening with a strong emphasis on personal repentance and conversion, where the Presbyterian Minister Charles G. Finney was a central figure. This also led to the strong emphasis on transformation of the society and social justice that has been a strong part of the Presbyterian history. For America to really be the nation God had chosen it to be, it needed to be a holy nation. The nationalism amongst the white Presbyterians were closely tied with the fundamental understanding of America as a Christian Nation.
Since America was elected by God to be a light to the nations, and the first nation founded on the natural order of government, the democracy, it also had a special mission to the world. The strong national identity of choseness, created a binarism towards other countries “Given this bifurcated view of the world that frequently drove the nation's self-understanding, the U.S. often sought to transform the world -- witness the great missionary crusades at the turn of the twentieth century and the decision to enter World War I ‘to make the world safe for democracy.’” [2]
These underlying American myths continue to define and influence the nation, and is a heritage from the Puritans. After the second world war the strong anticommunist movement must be seen in light of this. “The U.S. inherited the Puritans' conviction that they had a covenant with God to create a righteous "city on a hill" that would serve as an example to the nations and lead them to embody the ideals of freedom, democracy, and civil liberties which were expressed in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. This conviction, often designated "Manifest Destiny," tended to blur the lines between the dominant Protestant Christianity and the nation and its policies. That is, the nation wa
s seen as moral and consistently altruistic in its motives and actions, and other nations were believed to manifest acquisitiveness and selfishness.”[3]Dreams
To many people outside the church, the close connection between religion and nation is hard to take.
The myth of a Christian, altruistic nation on a special mission for God in bringing democracy and freedom to the nation, needs to be reshaped in a post-colonial view to avoid further Neo-Colonialization by America in missions and politics. The Presbyterian Church is a large an influencial source in the Christian Church in America, and our hope is that they would be on the cutting edge in what it really involves being a Christian and american at the same time, in a post-colonial time.
[1] http://cgj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/8/2/175, Page 183
[2] http://www.history.pcusa.org/pubs/journal/2000_spring/TruthAndLiberty.html, 12.06.08
[3] http://www.history.pcusa.org/pubs/journal/2000_spring/TruthAndLiberty.html, 12.06.08
Hybridity, Indigeneity
Description
Hybridity is the mixing of the original, indigenous culture with the colonialist culture. [1] In the case of the White Presbyterian Church, this hasn’t occurred. They have often impressed their culture onto others as the dominating nation, but within the White Presbyterian Church in America, their culture has simply changed over time. This change is more of a natural evolution of cultures, not because of any culture that has been imposed on them.
Indigeneity is the identity of the indigenous peoples, including their cultural identity before they were colonized, the cultural identity that the imperialists described them as, and the response the indigenous peoples have toward their colonizers. [2]
Hybridity and indigeneity are terms that cannot be separated and help to describe the other. A colonized people cannot separate who they are from the colonizing nation, and when they try, they reinforce the notion that they are marginalized. [3]
Stories
Within the White Presbyterian Church, there is little mixing of the indigenous culture with the colonizing culture. Hybridity is nearly nonexistent, and indigeneity is essentially completely irrelevant.
Racially, Emerson describes mainline denominations, such as the Presbyterian Church, as 38% of American Protestants. Using a an index of dissimilarity to determine racial segregation (1 being total segregation, 0 being total integration), mainline denominations (.85) fall between Catholics (.81) and conservative Protestants (.91). [4]
Dreams
Again, these are concepts that are seemingly foreign within the White Presbyterian Church. The dream would be for White Presbyterians to learn more about these concepts and be aware of them as they interact with the world.
[1] Bill Ashcroft, ed. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge 2006) 137.
[2] Ashcroft 163.
[3] Ashcroft 163.
[4] Michael O. Emerson. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. (Princeton: Princeton University Press 2006) 41.
Hybridity is the mixing of the original, indigenous culture with the colonialist culture. [1] In the case of the White Presbyterian Church, this hasn’t occurred. They have often impressed their culture onto others as the dominating nation, but within the White Presbyterian Church in America, their culture has simply changed over time. This change is more of a natural evolution of cultures, not because of any culture that has been imposed on them.
Indigeneity is the identity of the indigenous peoples, including their cultural identity before they were colonized, the cultural identity that the imperialists described them as, and the response the indigenous peoples have toward their colonizers. [2]
Hybridity and indigeneity are terms that cannot be separated and help to describe the other. A colonized people cannot separate who they are from the colonizing nation, and when they try, they reinforce the notion that they are marginalized. [3]
Stories
Within the White Presbyterian Church, there is little mixing of the indigenous culture with the colonizing culture. Hybridity is nearly nonexistent, and indigeneity is essentially completely irrelevant.
Racially, Emerson describes mainline denominations, such as the Presbyterian Church, as 38% of American Protestants. Using a an index of dissimilarity to determine racial segregation (1 being total segregation, 0 being total integration), mainline denominations (.85) fall between Catholics (.81) and conservative Protestants (.91). [4]
Dreams
Again, these are concepts that are seemingly foreign within the White Presbyterian Church. The dream would be for White Presbyterians to learn more about these concepts and be aware of them as they interact with the world.
[1] Bill Ashcroft, ed. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge 2006) 137.
[2] Ashcroft 163.
[3] Ashcroft 163.
[4] Michael O. Emerson. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. (Princeton: Princeton University Press 2006) 41.
Ethnicity and Race
Description
“The Greek word ethnikos, form which the English ‘ethnic’ and ‘ethnicity’ are derived, meant ‘gentile’, ‘heathen’. Going back to the noun ethnos, the word was used to refer not just to people in general but also to ‘others’. " In the English language this turned to be used to contrast other people negatively, and describe them as non-Christian or heathen (from ethnic sometimes spelled hethnic). “Only in the mid-nineteenth century did the more familiar meaning of ‘ethnic’ as ‘peculiar to a race or nation’ re-emerge. However, the English language has retained the pagan memory of ‘ethnic’, often secularized in the sense of ethnic as other, as nonstandard, or, in America, as not fully American, This connotation gives the opposition of ethnic and American the additional religious dimension of the contrast between heathens and chosen people.” As we are going to see, this applies to the history of the White Presbyterian regarding ethnic and racial issues.
There is a new notion brought to light in recent post-colonialism that we all are indeed ethnic. The color and category whiteness has through history not been viewed as ethnic and in a racial perspective. We seek to take a deeper analysis of what this means in the history and present for the white Presbyterian church.
Research shows that the larger the number of people in a tradition, the less diverse it is when it comes to ethnicities. The Presbyterian Church is no exception in this, being mainly white (92%). The percentage of people that are involved in multicultural congregations varies with faith tradition and ethnicity. For white protestants this number is 5%, which makes them the most segregated group.
Traditionally whites and blacks are the most segregated group, more than other ethnicities, this matches the White Presbyterian church as well. “The relationship of Black and white Presbyterians is similar to that of Black-white relationships in American society and within other Christian denominations.” It would be an understatement to describe the relationship between the White Presbyterian Church and ethnic and racial issues as merely ambivalent.
-historic development of looking at white as an ethnicity.
“Whiteness studies [is] a controversial and relatively new academic field that seeks to change how white people think about race. The field is based on a left-leaning interpretation of history by scholars who say the concept of race was created by a rich white European and American elite, and has been used to deny property, power and status to nonwhite groups for two centuries. Advocates of whiteness studies - most of whom are white liberals who hope to dismantle notions of race - believe that white Americans are so accustomed to being part of a privileged majority they do not see themselves as part of a race."
Jeff Hitchcock from the Center for the Study of White American Culture states that "White American culture holds power to control resources, set rules, and influence events...It must give up the center...Colorblindness encourages silence that continues the status quo."
White Presbyterian- from oppressed to oppressors
From coming as an oppressed minority mainly from England and Scotland the Presbyterian immigrants ended up oppressing minorities in the new land of opportunities. Themselves being a victim to colonialization, they took part in colonizing the new world. As far as race issues goes, the Presbyterian Puritans originally saw the imported slaves and the native Americans as barbarian and inferior but not as unable to civilize. It time this evolved, hand in hand with the colonialization process of what would become the United States, to a view the Native Americans
, Black slaves and other immigrant groups (for instance Chinese) as less human. With the emergence on science, they found new “evidence” to back up this theory, and even finding theological reasons for keeping slaves and oppressing other groups.Stories
The abolition for slavery and the Civil War
-white presbyterian development in the mid 19th century
During the Civil war the Presbyterian Church split over the slave issue, into the North branch, the PCUSA, and the South, the PCUS. The south eventually found itself in a new situation, having to relate to Black Christians, and they saw it to be a good solution to make the Blacks have their own Church. Cumberland Presbyterian Church had by 1874 constituted segregation, and founded the Colored Cumberland Presbyterian church.
The question of race and segregation was not only based on a theory of inferiority and that racial integrity was a sign of Gods providence. It has always been, and is today very much a question about power. Through the history, there were some voices, especially in the north, trying to speak up for a different way of being church. Generally they were swallowed up by church politics attempting to reunite the different Presbyterian branches by accepting segregated patterns of life and law that southerners had developed.
The Black churches continued to exist independently within the Presbyterian church.
Theirs existence was a witness to the abuse and inequity of power present in the human condition. During this period, Presbyterians struggled with the meaning of being Presbyterian in the midst of denominational turmoil engendered by cultural biases.
Desegre
gationWhite Presbyterian and the relation to a non-segregated future
The ecumenical movement in the beginning of the 20th century and its emphasis on brotherhood was part of stirring the White Presbyterian Conscience. Together with World War 2 and the Nazi theory of Aryan Supremacy it caused the White Presbyterian to reexamine their own church and their politics. Something had to change, and again the pressure came from the more liberal Presbyterians in the North.
Nelson Bell and the southern Presbyterians
L. Nelson Bell was a Presbyterian Medical Missionary in China in the beginning of the 20th Century. After returning to the States in 1941 he got involved in the issue of racial segregation within the southern Presbyterian church. As a conservative, powerful voice in the southern Presbyterian church he had a lot of influence in the 50ties and 60ties. He was Billy Graham’s father-in-law, although they had different views on the issue. Bell was a strong proponent for the continuation of a segregated society in the south, especially within the Presbyterian church. Though his magazine, the southern Presbyterian Journal he addressed the issue of segregation, and how it was consistent with a Christian Belief. Bell was also a spokesperson in debates outside the church. He appealed to people’s fear of a forceful integration to promote his view. He also still appealed to some sense of natural order for a segregated society and church, although he would not bluntly define the Black as inferior. Bell was a voice from the dominant white group wanting to maintain the status quo, keeping the power in the hands it had belonged to in the Presbyterian church for centuries.
“However,” Bell continued, “it seems unnatural and unwise to insist upon bringing those of another race into a specific congregation just because they are of a different race.” [1]
Bell voice was supported by a majority of southern Presbyterian Ministers, that still viewed racial integrity as God willed. Critics has stated that Bell’s effort postponed the reunion of the conservative southern Presbyterian Church, and the Northern Presbterian Church that was taking the other side on the racial issue.
Eventually this happened, and even the south had to accept the desegregation of society. To this day, even tough there is a few noticeable exceptions; the Presbyterian church is still heavily segregated. But the story of race relations in the Presbyterian church in the twentieth century has brought about two things: It created questions about what it means to be Presbyterian, and the ability to make Presbyterian Christianity and Blackness compatible, and it forced white Presbyterians to ask questions about the distribution of power within their denomination, and whether this was consistent with the Gospel.
Dreams
An ambivalent past coming together
The White Presbyterian Church relation to race and ethnicity has been, and is to this day ambivalent. As earlier stated, 92 percent of the Presbyterian church is white. There is, however a change going on. An increasingly amount of literature has been written on the history and how to reach a different future. There is good expceptions to the rule of a segregated church, they are not many, but the presence of them bear witness of the possibility for a different future. Through the 20th Century the Presbyterian Church has learned from its history in two ways "(a) it created questions about the ability to make Presbyterian Christianity and Blackness compatible; and (b) it increasingly forced white Presbyterians to ask questions about the distribution of power within their denominations and whether they were acting in a manner consistent with the gospel.”
[1] Hammond, Michael D: Conscience in Conflict: Neo-evangelicals and Race in the 1950s. A Thesis Submitted For The Degree Of Master Of Arts In Biblical and Theological Studies, Wheaton College Graduate School, Wheaton Illinois, October 2002 page 49
Resources:
Books:Ashcroft, Bill. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. 2. Ed. Routledge, 2006.
Bays, Daniel H., and Grant Wacker. The Foreign Missionary Enterprise at Home: Explorations in North American Cultural History. University Alabama Press, 2003.
Bender, Norman J. Winning the West for Christ: Sheldon Jackson and Presbyterianism on the Rocky Mountain Frontier, 1869-1880. 1. Ed. Univ. of New Mexico Pr, 1996.
Emerson, Michael O. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. Princeton University Press, 2008.
Hammond, Michael D: Conscience in Conflict: Neo-evangelicals and Race in the 1950s. A Thesis Submitted For The Degree Of Master Of Arts In Biblical and Theological Studies, Wheaton College Graduate School, Wheaton Illinois, October 2002
Mulder, John M., Milton J. Coalter, and Louis B. Weeks. The Diversity of Discipleship: Presbyterians and Twentieth-Century Christian Witness. 1. Ed. Westminster John Knox Press, 1991.
Murray, Andrew E. PRESBYTERIANS AND THE NEGRO - A HISTORY. Presbyterian Historical Society, 1966.
Parker, Sara, Ph.D. & Girgis, Raafat. Living The Vision - Becoming A Multicultural Church. Evangelism and Church Witness, 1999.
Smylie, James H. Presbyterians and the American Revolution: A Documentary Account From the Journal of Presbyterian History. Presbyterian Historical Society], 1974.
Stroupe, Nibs, and Inez Fleming. While We Run This Race: Confronting the Power of Racism in a Southern Church. Orbis Books, 1995.
Sugirtharajah, R. S. Voices from the Margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World. 3. Ed. Orbis Books, 2006.
Websites:
The North America Presbyterian and Reformed Council Conference on Race Relations, March 24 - 25, 1977
Extracts from the Minutes of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
1964 Statement on Biblical Principles on Racial Discrimination
RACIAL RECONCILIATION
ETHNICITY AND RACE: An Introduction to the Nature of Social Group Differentiation and Inequality
History, Place
The Church Reformed and Always Reforming What does it mean to be Presbyterian:
Presbyterians organized themselves in the 16th century in the context of the Protestant Reformation. The Presbyterian distinction within the Protestant Reformed tradition refers to the system of church government. Presbyterians makes church governmental decisions based on representative assemblies (presbyteries) in contrast to the (1) episcopal system with bishops of the (2) congregational system of decision making.
The French lawyer John Calvin (1509-1564), focused Reformed theology and set roots for Presbyterians. The Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms of 1647 sets out Presbyterian church government, Calvinistic theology, and forms of worship form major components of the Book of Confessions .
They fled colonizing nations as religious refugees. After persecution in Great Britain, Presbyterians were among the earliest Reformed immigrants to America. They established congregations as early as the 1630's and lived along the east coast and explored western wilderness. In 1706, eight Presbyterian ministers formed the Presbytery of Philadelphia. This governing body established the Presbyterian government in the New World. The clergy affirmed three major freedoms: (3) the freedom to organize and the right to worship, (3) the freedom to preach and teach, and (3) the freedom to administer the sacraments. Yet they perpetuated colonial ideals while interacting with natives and slaves. These faithful immigrants established patterns which have continued to influence White American Presbyterian worship and church structure.
The American church developed and identified itself through its experience and personalities. It has characteristics of educated leadership and educational, mission, and charitable institutions. William Tennent founded what would become Princeton. Rev. Jonathon Edwards was a leader from the pulpit. David Brainerd led missions to the native Americans, and women founded the "Female Charitable Society." The church also bears the examples of its first internal conflicts. A definitive turning point in the American history of Presbyterians, lies in the catalyst of the American Revolution. The Presbyterian Church broke its official European with the advent of the Revolution.
Reformed views of God's sovereignty and of human sinfulness moved the new nation toward checks and balances and separation of powers. Presbyterians were involved in drafting governmental documents, affirming the connection between faith and public service. In the 1788, the Synod met in Philadelphia to form the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (PCUSA). The church carried on revivals and organized congregations, presbyteries, and synods - emphasizing the connectional nature of the church. Presbyterians helped as well to shape voluntary societies to encourage educational, missionary, evangelical, and reforming work. Mission to Native Americans, African Americans, and populations all over the world became a hallmark of the church.
The involvement with colonialism, slavery, racism became more clear as colonialism transitioned into post-colonialism. The 19th century was characterized by disagreement and division over theology, governance, and reform - particularly slavery. The century saw the formation of additional denominations, such as the Cumberland Presbyterian Church and the United Presbyterian Church of North America. In the controversy over slavery, southern Presbyterians split from the PCUSA, forming the PCCSA in 1861.
The 19th and 20th centuries saw post-colonial trends including fragmentation within the denomination and the unity of the church. There was growth and decline of foreign mission work and controversy and division over worship and the confessions. Women's issues, civil rights and other social justice issues, and service to diverse congregations, including Korean Americans, were also significant in the life of the church. Reorganization and loss of membership also characterized this period. In a bold step forward the Church began ordaining women in this period.
The Presbyterian church in the United States has often split and reunited. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), which has its national offices in Louisville, KY, currently has the largest membership. It was formed in 1983 as a result of reunion between the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (PCUS), the "southern stream," and the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (UPCUSA), the "northern stream." The UPCUSA was formed by the merger (1958) of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. Other Presbyterian churches in the North America include: the Presbyterian Church in America, the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church, and the Presbyterian Church of Canada. As of 2005, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) had approximately 2.4 million members, 11,100 congregations, and 14,000 ordained and active ministerss (Presbyterian Historical Society).
From the introduction of Post Colonial Studies Reader : “The sacred has been an empowering feature of post-colonial experience in two ways: on one hand indigenous concepts of the sacred have been able to interpolate dominant conceptions of cultural identity; and on the other Western forms of the sacred have been appropriated and transformed as a means of local empowerment” (8). I regard the empowerment of culture and religion as a focus for this project on White Presbyterians. As we seek to identify the White American cultural identity, we must look to the mainline Protestant denominations. In this case, we are examining the post colonial dominant oppressors. How has post colonial oppressor identity changed with questions of religion and cultural identity? Personally, my feelings of “White guilt” have shaped my faith practice, as I am hyper sensitive to dominant or oppressive behavior and patterns. I seek to break chains of oppression resulting from colonization with my actions, and simultaneously apologize for past behavior. The confidence God gives me is that I can only do my part, and I can never undo the past, but I can place reconciliation at the center of my steps forward.
As to the second point, the sacred is a major point of empowerment for our study group as well. Three things motivate: economics, politics, and religion. People act, or make faith based decisions often. For example, to address environmental issues, we need economists, politicians, and religious leaders to all contribute to motivating change. This local empowerment through religious identity applies to White Presbyterians, but it has its limits. White Presbyterians tend to gain their identity primarily outside their faith community, through profession for example. Oppressed people without economic identity, are more likely to look to faith for an identity. Therefore, White Presbyterians will not move with local empowerment as other groups with stronger faith identity will follow local empowerment. How can White Presbyterians empower local faith communities with action more effectively to seek justice and reconciliation?
Slemon’s “Scramble for Post-Colonialism” offers a presentation naming colonialism as an “apparatus for constituting subject positions through a field of representations” (Post Colonial Studies Reader 51) and he offers a continuum graph line to highlight this postulation. This debate of the nature of colonialism directly connects to White Presbyterian reflections, because this project depends on history, and to grasp the nature of colonialism must have the flexibility represented on the graph. As our group represents the oppressor, it also represents those who work for freedom and justice. We must not polarize the spectrum of historical legacy as we seek to move forward with thoughtfulness.
White Presbyterians have employed a “network of resistance.” As a group, they are deeply rooted in historical identity. The Presbyterian church is often slow to change. The church clearly does not keep up with the current trends of technological revolutions. Their national website, and local congregations demonstrate traditional technology. How does this example of technology function as “resistance?” This question, if it is even a valid one, will take more research to answer, but initially, resistance keeps the generational divide clear, and the identity in things above, not in the trends of this world, or things below. It’s both noble and limiting.
The future of the denomination is unclear. But, post-colonial themes such as hybridity will play major roles as the church develops in the 21st century. To be Presbyterian is to be ecumenical, and the church participated in organizations such as the Alliance of the Reformed Churches, The National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA, and Churches Uniting in Christ.
a history from the PCUSA can be found here
Resources (odd that two books share one title):
Loetscher, Lefferts A. A Brief History of the Presbyterians Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983.
Smylie, James H. A Brief History of the Presbyterians Louisville: Geneva Press, 1996.
Zenos, Andrew C. Presbyterianism in America: Past - Present and Prospective New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1937.
Feminism
Women in the Presbyterian church have faced post-colonial struggles including themes of hybridity, liberation struggles, fragmentation, dualisms, and hyphenated identities. Though started by white men, the Presbyterian church has always embraced family unity, coeducational worship and programs. Women did not rise to leadership in the church until the 19th century. Women’s rights are realized as the fruit of many generations of work. The bulk of this early work was volunteer and groundbreaking.
Before 1870, the church rejected women’s right to speak in the church. This ideal was justified through scripture and tradition and was implemented in the young church of the new world. In the wake of the Civil War, between roughly 1870 and 1920, American society was open to liberation struggles including women’s rights and civil reform. Obviously, with suffrage, women’s rights were present in a variety of social outlets, and culture and church benefited from this mutual influence. Women developed a base of power through founding boards and funding mission and Christian education. Sheldon Jackson and Henry Kendall were instrumental in laying groundwork for these women’s boards and mission funds. These groups provided much needed assistance to local and foreign mission work in the American west and internationally.
For the most part, mainline denominations did not ordain women until the 20th century, but one exception was a Presbyterian church in Kentucky, which ordained a women in 1889. However, five years later, a denominational conflict occurred over it and she was basically disallowed to minister (MacHaffie 276). A few years prior to this, provisions were made to allow women to be deaconesses in the Presbyterian church. Their role in this was relegated largely to missionary and social work, which while obviously important, was seen as a lesser role suitable for women.
Abigail Harris, a Presbyterian, came through the ranks of her church in the early 19th century. She began leading small groups and women’s gatherings. She also sought to bring in other women and people from other Christian denominations. She decided those doctrinal differences did not matter when it came the overall message of Christ and the Kingdom of God (Brekus 151). She balanced a hyphenated identity through her work for God's kingdom.
Mission work was the first major church profession women could hold. Nineteenth century women increasingly sought professions, which would offer self-satisfaction, monetary reward, and upward social mobility. Critics argue that women’s move into church jobs, notably within Missions, that these jobs typically lie within a women’s sphere. Others argue that women were allowed to make this professional leap because men were fleeting from these jobs, and women simply filled a vacancy. Despite cultural roles, the denomination reacted to progressive cultural changes advocating a social gospel. It supported women’s temperance activities, humanitarian projects, and social reform projects. Critically however, many of the women working for these changes were volunteering their time, but the denomination facilitated some paid positions to affirm prospects of this social change.
Historically, women in mission were described by their partnership with their husbands. The first officially recognized woman (wife) in mission was in 1839, and the rest of the 19th century saw a rise in women’s leadership within mission. An early call in the Presbyterian Church from women’s affirmation in mission came in a formal presentation at a missionary conference, “Our American women are first and always missionaries; and their work and their influence are not one whit behind that of the men” (Boyd 163). This quote can refer many specific practices, but it highlights women’s abilities, enthusiasm, and desires to participate actively in ministry, and mission. Ironically, wives of international missionaries had more prestigious status than wives of local missionaries. Women in America, were still viewed by American ideals, despite their positive contributions to the church and the kingdom of God through mission work in our own country. By the 1870’s there was a surge of unmarried women commissioned by the church who were heading into the mission field. Women were also gaining a vote in denominational discussions of mission work.
The Presbyterian Church in the USA voted officially to ordain women as deacons in local churches in 1922. In 1929, they were allowed to be named as elders. Around this time, more women were also begin admitted to seminaries (MacHaffie 276). During and after WWII, women fought to gain more rights in Presbyterian churches, often against opposition. While being allowed some of the same rights as men, men were often placed in ultimate authority, making it difficult to achieve large-scale success. Also, women would be allowed on church boards and decisions making committees, but their voices were often diminished in due to dominant male cultural structures (MacHaffie 276-281).
In the 1956, the 168th General Assembly affirmed that women are equal and responsible partners in the mission of the Church. The Presbyterian Church (USA) ordains women to all the offices of the church as deacons, elders, and notably as minsters of Word and Sacrament. The mission of the church cannot be healthy without the responsible voices of women resounding in the decisions of the church. The social climate has continued to offer women respect from the denominational offices to the mission field. The first major legislative step the United Presbyterian Church made towards total equality was in 1969, although ordination was happening before that. Church decrees were passed that eliminated any form of discrimination against women within churches (Brekus 239). Admiringly, the Presbyterian church was one of the first to take part in the women’s liberation movement and acknowledge the need to address these issues on several levels. Yet, there is much work to attend, as many congregations have distinct expectations for the work of women’s missionary activity, and men’s activity.
By 1981, long after women were no longer sexistly denied ordination based on their gender, female clergy numbered only 621 out of 14,502 despite the fact that women comprise 57% of congregation members. Because the ordination question has been answered, the future of femenism in the Presbyterian church will explore the question of full sexual equality in the church as women seek universal equality as children of God in this sacred institution.
Resources:
Boyd, Lois A. and R. Douglas Brackenridge, Presbyterian Women in America: Two Centuries of a Quest for Status Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 1983.
Brekus, Catherine A. The Religious History of American Women Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
MacHaffie, Barbara. Her Story Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006.
Further web resources:
Prebyterian women is an independent organization within the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) of more than 300,000 women. The programming and resource options for the organization offer a variety of ways for women to live out their faith in an inclusive, caring community.
Here are stories of women's roles of the past one hundred years of turning points on the ordination of women in the PC(USA).
Production and Consumption
Description
The dominant form of production and consumption in America, and indeed the whole reason why American was colonized in the first place was in the name of Capitalism. Although at the time of colonization the form of capitalism had not yet taken place and was still called under the age old name Mercantilism. As a result if the Presbyterians liked it or not they were full fledged participants in this system of thought and economy. Almost undoubtedly the Presbyterians were willing and eager participants. Looking for a place to lay roots to their growing religion and being allowed to both practice their beliefs and possibly found their own churches, not to mention own the land the churches were founded on, America and its promise of land and wealth (Capitalism) may have almost been too much to bear for the early colonial fathers of the Presbyterian church. Capitalism is not just a way of running an economy but also a way of thinking. Capitalism simply translated means "economic individualism". Emphasizing the right of an individual to obtain wealth and the right to own property (which are two different things).While the White Presbyterians did participate in growing American economy, they really were a very conservative force in its development. There is no major line of thought or radical economic development that comes from American White Presbyterians. While there has been some argument that Capitalism is a direct result of John Calvin's idealism being brought to the free world (America) through the Scottish Presbyterians, this idea is largely refuted. Individualism and the empowerment of the "free will" are two concepts that both Presbyterians and Capitalist thoughts hold strongly in common and thus they paired well with each other and changed very little while they spent their time together. Presbyterians played more the role of bearing foreword the banner of economic idealism that their new found country already afforded them. Taking their banner and with a slow and steady pace they trotted on with it thought American history to this very day.
Stories 
While White Presbyterians marched onward they left a bit more than just churches behind them. Part of the religious ideology held by the Presbyterians was the desire for each individual to read and understand the bible on their own terms. This naturally increased the level of literacy amongst Presbyterians as a group and also may have driven their desire for higher leaning. As a result over 64 colleges have been founded by White Presbyterians over the course of American history and the founding of the Association of Presbyterian Colleges and Universities followed in suite. If just building colleges wasn't enough Presbyterians have built two of the oldest colleges in the United States as well. The oldest of which is none other than Princeton University, which was founded in 1746. The other, though not as large in fan fare is the Hampden-Sydney College (shown at right) which was founded in 1775. It would be worthy to note that both colleges were founded and operating before American Independence in 1776. Also both colleges stated though not to be universities, offered 4 year degrees, at which time only colleges in Britain had the academic "right" to do so. Dreams
Though i will not be so bold as to speak out for other White Presbyterians on the matters of economic future, i would dare say that is would be any fellow Christians desire that when the day of adversity arrives we would find ourselves strong enough to face it in full. If the Presbyterians ever find themselves in another crisis similar to the one during the Civil War, or during Women's Suffrage, may they simply have the courage to sacrifice the high place they have been given within American society to help those who are struggling to be recognized just as humans. Even should one among them find the courage to do so, I would sorely doubt he or she would find themselves alone.
Resources
http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Capitalism.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_Colleges
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian#Scotland
http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/CAPITAL.HTM
http://wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/CALVIN.HTM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Presbyterian_Colleges_and_Universities
Globalization and Environment
The history of the Presbyterian Church’s relationship with mission and globalization is a rich one that dates back to the formation of modern missions. It is also one marred with controversy and division, but also triumph and inclusion. Mission has been one of the most oppressive manifestations of the church. The unintended social and colonial consequences of mission have been catastrophic, and many missionaries have been sponsored by the Presbyterian Church. Without brushing these offenses under the rug, we can nonetheless understand the legacy of the missions of the Presbyterian Church as having lasting benefits for the Kingdom of God. Beginning in the 17th century, there was an informal practice to emphasize the missionary spirit in the Presbyterian Church. There was a strong emphasis on preaching the gospel to the Native Americans, which provided inroads for potentially damaging colonial practices. At the same time, advancements were made as we can see in Clifford Merrill Drury’s book Presbyterian Panorama, when he states “the New Testament was translated into Algonquin by 1661.” (p.6). Outside of testaments like these, information is scarce concerning the negatives impacts of Presbyterian missions and the way Presbyterian practices impinged on their way of life. Drury claims that explicit missionary efforts were made by the Presbyterian Church in 17 states by 1802.
The modern picture of missions we see today began largely in the 1830s and 1840s. In 1837, the Presbyterian Church formed the Board of Foreign Mission and began to seek opportunities to spread the gospel not just into the American frontier, but to the rest of the world. As their missiology developed throughout the years, the church focused on “covering the globe with the strategy to develop indigenous churches, which would be self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. They also spent a great deal of effort translating, printing, and distributing the Scriptures in different languages.” (Go Therefore, Smylie, Thompson, & Patrick, p. v.) These missionaries also established schools, hospitals, agricultural institutions, and other organizations, furthering their reach into the lives of the common people.
The Presbyterian Church helped found the International Missionary Council in 1921, which embodied the new development of ecumenical spirit in missions. At this time, the rise of the social gospel reformed the Church’s understanding and expanded from strictly the conversion of souls to include things like educating people, healing the sick, feeding the hungry, and clothing the naked as this demonstrated that Christian mission was about the whole of life.
New developments began to take shape in the 1960s and 70s when the PCUSA reevaluated its mission practices in an effort to determine how much good, or bad, their approach was doing. As James Smylie puts its in Go Therefore, the Church began to view missions as more of a dialogue with existing churches in nations and aiding them to do their job, rather than taking the initiative themselves and creating potentially damaging effects. In other words, it was “less triumphalistic and more dialogic” (p. ix).
One such case of this new approach was with the Presbyterian Church of East Africa. In 1971, Reverend John Gatu of Kenya called for a moratorium on missionaries and money from the West. His message was titled “Missionary, Go Home”, and demonstrated the need for a reformulation of mission practices. In 1974, the Church made it clear that they would minimize ‘sending and receiving’ and focus their efforts more on ecumenism and forming working coalitions of US and international agencies. Another focus would be to provide resources, money, materials, and people, in response to requests from these new, more sovereign bodies. They were aiming at full integration and distancing themselves from unilateral implementation of what they thought was best. (A History of Presbyterian Mission, Sundquist & Becker, p. 43)
These new ideas obviously contribute to the extreme decline in official mission personnel, but also reflect a restructuring that should be more effective in the modern world as we understand the changing face of mission. From this new perspective, Sundquist and Becker say “we can probably say that the number of ‘Presbyterian missionaries’ is more than ever.” (45). While not denying past offenses and the damaging affects of colonial practices of mission, we can steadfastly say that the PCUSA is making important advances in the arena of mission and globalization.
In regards to the environment and ecological justice, the PCUSA is one of the leading church organizations in this movement. While little information is available regarding the Church's direct involvement in destruction of natural flora and fauna in the colonization of America when they came, they undoubtedly had a heavy hand in this manner as ideas of dominion and domination played a role in their theology. Because history does not record the failures of those who write it, we have no real record of the unspeakable damages settlers had on their new environment. The introduction of new plants and animals, as well as practies such as deforestation would have a lasting affect that we still see today.
That being said, the modern-day PCUSA is taking extraordinary measures to begin to rectify some of those past offenses. Starting in 1988, the Environmental Justice Ministries has guided the PCUSA on past, present, and future environmental policies. In 1990, the PCUSA and the EJM released a policy called “Restoring Creation for Ecology and Justice” which has been the basis for most subsequent work.
The EJM seeks to “produce, promote, and distribute faith-based environmental resources for individuals, congregations, and presbyteries.” They accomplish these aims by coordinating a network of educators and leaders to work with congregations and organizations on an ongoing basis providing workshops, resources, and guidance in the creation of new policy. Members of the EJM also participate in the inter-faith Global Climate Change Campaigns. The EJM, along with the General Assembly, have also released a pamphlet for the layperson containing biblical and theological foundations for creation care and restorative ecological justice. This pamphlet is called “And the Leaves of the Tree are for the Healing of the Nations,” and can be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29.
Information concerning the EJM and the PCUSA’s environmental care program can be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29.
Resources:
Drury, Clifford Merrill. Presbyterian Panorama - 150 years in National Missions History (PCUSA; Philadelphia, PA, 1952)
Smylie, James H., Dean K. Thompson & Cary Patrick, eds. Go Therefore - 150 of Presbyterians in Global Missions. (PCUSA; Atlanta, GA, 1987)
Sundquist, Scott W. & Caroline M. Becker. A History of Presbyterian Mission - 1944-2007. (Geneva Press; Louisville, KY, 2008)
Diaspora, Place
The issue of diaspora in post-colonial studies does not apply to our group as readily as it does to others. However, as a representation of the majority, we have to be extremely sensitive to these kinds of issues in other groups. In our increasingly globalized world, which we want our congregations to reflect, we have to understand where each person is coming from. With that in mind, let us look at a few examples we can appeal to that will help us along this road.
Insiders and outsiders compromise much of a post-colonial view of the diaspora. In "Jesus and the Minjung in the Gospel of Mark", R.S. Sugirtharajah asks good questions which help us address what can white Presbyterians learn from “the crowd” or the ochlos in Mark’s gospel? This crowd of outsiders has a welcome place in Jesus’ ministry. It is hard to imagine the congregation of a white Presbyterian church to be dominantly comprised of social “outsiders.” The church is currently comprised largely of social insiders, yet it does reach out to and learn from outsiders. A major shift would be integrating these social groups through the grace of Jesus. PCUSA is taking steps to rectify issues of social segregation, and a more active approach is being pursued. More information on immediate action taking place right now can be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29.
In "Breaking Hegemonic Boundaries", Sugirtharajah addresses this intertextual world, which Derrida and others defend is even more vibrant in our current web 2.0 digital age. The white Presbyterian church can draw many more people into their dialogue. In fact, the interactions which the intertextual conversation invites, will be one of the greatest assets to the future of the denomination. It’s difficult to imagine the church thriving in isolation. This articles asks a great question the church could learn from: How are the cruel death and defeat of the murdered heroes to be transformed into the weapon of the weak community? Jesus is a hero to the weak, and his message is especially powerful to the oppressed. How can the Presbyterian church, in its strengths and weaknesses, open its voice to the wider intertextual world?
Many from the diaspora have taken the biblical message and contextualized to their own context throughout the diaspora. In "Wresting the message from the Messenger", Sugirtharajah addresses the Rasta use of the Bible to self identify within the oppressive system. How can the Presbyterian church learn to empower others with the Bible within a Christian context? The Rasta claims to the lordship of Haile Sellase fall outside Christian orthodoxy, yet so much of their practice shares biblical common ground.
In the end, all Christians are better off working together than separate. According to the gospel of John, Jesus prayed for unity among all believers. Our diasporate is huge, but it is becoming smaller than ever. Today, Presbyterians have the opportunity to connect throughout the diaspora more than ever before.
Resources:
"Breaking Hegemonic Boundaries" (R.S. Sugirtharajah, Voices from the Margin. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2006. pages103-111)
"Jesus and the Minjung in the Gospel of Mark" (R.S. Sugirtharajah, Voices from the Margin (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2006. pages 87-102)
"Wresting the message from the Messenger" (R.S. Sugirtharajah, Voices from the Margin. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2006. pages169-188)
Language, Body & Performance
White Presbyterians represent the learned western elite which this Voices from the Margin hopes to deconstruct. Sugirtharajah describes the misguided assumptions of the educated - access to volumes of books, academic institutional resources, and western academic dialogue dominate scholarly activity (pg 1-10). The voices of the non-western world have valid insights and additions to formal academic conversations. The way the ordination process is currently ordered prevents people without rigorous western academic training to enter the ordained pastorate. The system relies on academic pursuits, and loses the flexibility of non-academic voices in leadership. These voices, however, have influence in Presbyterian dialogue, just no current place in pastoral leadership.
White Presbyterians typically speak English as a first language which is of course a dominant language of colonization. Culturally specific expression in English represent the colonial heritage which has woven into church practices, including some beloved hymns such as "Amazing Grace." Culture and language are bound together, and the white Presbyterian church stands to benefit with reflections on the influence of language in mission, congregations, and leadership in this post-colonial age.
Resources:
R.S. Sugirtharajah, Voices from the Margin (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2006).
Conclusion
Ultimately, the final chapter of The Post-Colonial Studies Reader “Postcolonializing Biblical Interpretation” by R. S. Sugirtharajah raises apt interpretive questions for the Presbyterian church. In this post-colonial age, we read the Bible with specific concerns such as liberation struggles, hybridity, fragmentation, deterritorialization, and hyphenated identities. Post-colonial biblical interpretations reduce the polarization of identities such as categorical polarization. When applied to mission, we must assume a fragmented identity will not resonate with a unilateral interpretation. We must learn to look at the Bible with the fragmented and broken interpretation of the post-colonial reality. Presbyterians will face these post-colonial themes in mission and all other aspects of the church. Presbyterians are a hybrid of postcolonial issues. After fleeing oppression in Europe, they established forms of oppression in America through slavery. Women have struggled for recognition, rights, and representaiton in the work of the church. In regards to the environment and ecological justice, the PCUSA is one of the leading church organizations in this movement and is currently taking both preventative and restorative measures to help heal and care for the earth. With respect to nationalism the U.S. inherited the Puritans' conviction that they had a covenant with God to create a righteous "city on a hill" that would serve as an example to the nations and lead them to embody the ideals of freedom, democracy, and civil liberties which were expressed in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. This conviction, often designated "Manifest Destiny," tended to blur the lines between the dominant Protestant Christianity and the nation and its policies. That is, the nation was seen as moral and consistently altruistic in its motives and actions, and other nations were believed to manifest acquisitiveness and selfishness. It would be an understatement to describe the relationship between the White Presbyterian Church and ethnic and racial issues as merely ambivalent. “The relationship of Black and white Presbyterians is similar to that of Black-white relationships in American society and within other Christian denominations.” To this day, even tough there is a few noticeable exceptions; the Presbyterian church is still heavily segregated. But the story of race relations in the Presbyterian church in the twentieth century has brought about two things: It created questions about what it means to be Presbyterian, and the ability to make Presbyterian Christianity and Blackness compatible, and it forced white Presbyterians to ask questions about the distribution of power within their denomination, and whether this was consistent with the Gospel. The consideration universality and difference are important when discussing and thinking about white presbyterianism. It is here that one can begin to understand some of the nuances and potential biases of the church. Caucasians will be able to simply move in and out of a white presbyterian church with no problem where as someone from a different culture may struggle a bit more to assimilate. This assimilation is almost expected to happen when one becomes part of the church. Having a very Euro-centric beginning most white presbyterian churches have not moved far from their starting point. However, there is a movement within the Presbyterian church to help organize and develop multi-cultural churches. Universality and difference can be simply summed in understanding the assumptions and challenges those assumptions bring to the church.
The history of the Presbyterian Church’s relationship with mission and globalization is a rich one that dates back to the formation of modern missions. This investigation highlights the controversy and division, alongside triumph and inclusion.
Resources
Here we have listed some good resources on the White Presbyterian Church and resources about the topics on this site.
Books:
Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin eds. The Post-colonial Studies Reader, 2nd Edition.Routledges, New York, NY. 2006.
Boyd, Lois A. and R. Douglas Brackenridge, Presbyterian Women in America: Two Centuries of a Quest for Status Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983.
Brekus, Catherine A. The Religious History of American Women Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
Drury, Clifford Merrill. Presbyterian Panorama - 150 years in National Missions History. PCUSA; Philadelphia, PA, 1952
Emerson, Michael O. and Rodney M. Woo. People of the Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States. Princeton University Press Princeton, NJ. 2006.
Loetscher, Lefferts A. A Brief History of the Presbyterians Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983.
MacHaffie, Barbara. Her Story Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006.
Smylie, James H. A Brief History of the Presbyterians Louisville: Geneva Press, 1996.
Smylie, James H., Dean K. Thompson & Cary Patrick, eds. Go Therefore - 150 of Presbyterians in Global Missions. PCUSA; Atlanta, GA, 1987.
Sundquist, Scott W. & Caroline M. Becker. A History of Presbyterian Mission - 1944-2007. Geneva Press; Louisville, KY, 2008
Takaki, Ronald. A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America. Back Bay Books/Little Brown & Company, New York, NY. 1993.
Zenos, Andrew C. Presbyterianism in America: Past - Present and Prospective New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1937.
Websites:
Prebyterian Church USA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_colonization#Greek_colonies_.28.22apoikiai.22.29.
Church in Mission wiki webpage, class notes http://ftsmc500.wetpaint.com/page/Day+3
Jesus Camp Movie website: http://www.jesuscampthemovie.com/
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