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Latin-American Catholic
“To struggle against all injustice and exploitation, to be committed to the creation of a more brotherly and human society, is to live the love of the Father, and to bear witness to it.” - Gustavo Gutierrez
“The poverty of the poor is not an appeal for generous action to relieve it, but a demand for the construction of a different social order.” - Gustavo Gutierrez
Universality
Description
Universality represents the mindset that what is true for one culture is, or should be, true for all cultures. Usually, this is a relationship that exists between the colonizer and the colonized. The culture of the colonizer becomes a lens through which all other cultures are understood, thereby denying cultural differences. At the popular level, universality is sometimes equated with Eurocentism - the understanding the Europe is the normative culture. In places like Latin America, the fact of universality meant that conquest was a means of reduplication [1], whereby European nations tried to make the New World into a New Europe. Universality can be seen at the deepest levels of a culture, including language and thought. Such a fact can be clearly seen when considering at how cartographers traditionally drew maps. Each cartographer demonstrates a natural proclivity to finding their own country at the center of the map. Accordingly, Europe would often find itself at the center of its maps and, by extension, at the center of the World. Other maps were created on the basis of a religious bias and therefore hold the depiction the ‘Holy City’ as the center of the world 
On occasion, cartographers would exercise artistic liberty, as seen in Europa Regina by Johannes Bucius in 1537, to portray a particular figure as a symbol of their bias. Bucius's map demonstrates that Europe thought of itself as the “Queen of World.”
Dreams
Difference
Description
On occasion, cartographers would exercise artistic liberty, as seen in Europa Regina by Johannes Bucius in 1537, to portray a particular figure as a symbol of their bias. Bucius's map demonstrates that Europe thought of itself as the “Queen of World.”
Stories
The problems of universality extend into literature, mathematics, and kissing. In literature, Shakespeare has often been held as a standard of greatness for being able to reveal the “universal human condition” [2]. However, Shakespeare demonstrates his own European biases in his literature and plays. Similarly, Alan Bishop says that mathematics has a “cultural history” [3]. While the truths of mathematics may be universal, the symbols of those truths are cultural artifacts. Western mathematics, for instance, uses a distinctive set of numbers and is organized by groupings to ten. Other cultures organize their mathematical systems differently and utilize different symbols. Finally, kissing in every culture has a different purpose and meaning. Charles Larson ran into several stumbling blocks as a teacher in Africa because he was unaware of cultural differences. One which difference was kissing. Larson was made aware of the fact that what is natural for him is a cultural representation and, therefore, not necessarily natural for others [4].
The problems of universality extend into literature, mathematics, and kissing. In literature, Shakespeare has often been held as a standard of greatness for being able to reveal the “universal human condition” [2]. However, Shakespeare demonstrates his own European biases in his literature and plays. Similarly, Alan Bishop says that mathematics has a “cultural history” [3]. While the truths of mathematics may be universal, the symbols of those truths are cultural artifacts. Western mathematics, for instance, uses a distinctive set of numbers and is organized by groupings to ten. Other cultures organize their mathematical systems differently and utilize different symbols. Finally, kissing in every culture has a different purpose and meaning. Charles Larson ran into several stumbling blocks as a teacher in Africa because he was unaware of cultural differences. One which difference was kissing. Larson was made aware of the fact that what is natural for him is a cultural representation and, therefore, not necessarily natural for others [4].
Dreams
One of the easiest ways to combat the negative effects of universality is awareness of how one's understanding is often obscured by cultural biases. Postcolonial studies have helped facilitate such an awareness, but the power of universality continues to facilitate the oppression of many Latin American countries. Through increased awareness of how culture affects perception, Western and Latin American countries can begin to work together toward change.
__________
[1] It is necessary to consider the history of Latin-American Catholicism and Liberation Theology. Here one can find the story of how universality led to the oppression of the people of Latin American which resulted in the birth of Liberation Theology.
[2] Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Postcolonial Studies Reader, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2006), 71.
[3] Ashcroft, The Postcolonial Studies Reader, 80.
[4] Ashcroft, The Postcolonial Studies Reader, 77.
Difference
Description
Any discussion of cultural differences must remain closely connected to universality. While cultures seek to attribute significance to their differences, universality seeks to attribute significance to only one culture and identifies other culture as insignificant. Cultural difference says that each culture is in the process of being culturally significant through its established identity, but universality says that each culture is in the process of becoming an adequate culture. As such, universality tends to consider all cultures on an evolutionary scale, with undeveloped cultures on one end and Western culture on the other. This distinction, or dysfunction, has led to the use of binaries, which were used to legitimize Western dominance. In Latin American tradition, common binaries include: oppressor-oppressed, rich-poor, civilized-savage. Spanish conquistadors generally believed that they were the saviors of Latin America, sent to save the savages from themselves (see also the section on History). Postcolonial studies oppose Western binaries and seeks to find a middle ground that values cultural differences.
Stories
Stories
This video, though not directly connected from Latin-American Catholicism, serves as an illustration of the relevance of cultural differences. Everyone is shaped by their own cultural differences, and to ignore the cultural differences of others or to suggest that one's own culture is the ultimate, is more a matter of ignorance than anything else. Rather, engaging with other cultures and listening to other voices serves to bring about awareness (as seen in this video).
Dreams
Cultural differences should be expected. Often, cultural differences provoke either a negative interaction between cultures (often a result of universality which leads to oppression) or an opportunity for mutual respect and encouragement. It is necessary to keep an open mind and attempt to move beyond the limits of one's own culture. Only by attributing significance to other cultures can one truly gain respect and understanding for one’s own culture. Furthermore, one should maintain an openness to hear and learn from other cultures. At the heart of universality lies an egocentric force that devalues any culture that is different. It is absolutely crucial to value other cultures while remaining true to one’s own culture. There must be an awareness of how universality has effected a cultures words and thoughts. It is counterproductive to suggest openness to other cultures and yet remain confined within one’s own world. Intercultural dialogue should take place, forcing cultures to engage in the values of one another and thus break down the walls of colonialism that have plagued cultural interaction.
Representation and Resistance
Description
Discussions of representation and resistance in Latin American liberation theology concern how the culture portrays beliefs about liberation through mediums like art and literature, and in the ways that liberationists express resistance toward government, other Christians, and the general public. In this discussion, resistance also refers to what, who and how others have resisted Latin American liberation theology.
In The Postcolonial Studies Reader, leading post-colonial scholar Bill Ashcroft discusses issues of representation and resistance within colonialism, though he does not focus upon oppression in Latin America in particular. Ashcroft does, however, focus upon Rushdie's Midnight’s Children, which is noted as "a noticeable pull away from separatist nationalism towards a more integrative view of the human community and human liberation" [1]. Ashcroft's observation leads us to consider how liberation themes can be voiced in other literary works. More than several fiction books can be identified as having a liberation ‘twist’ to them. Such books include Pineda's The Love Queen of the Amazon and Alvarez's In the Time of Butterflies. A major hindrance, however, to the spread of liberation ideas through the literary medium is high illiteracy rates in Latin American countries (see chart to the right).Cultural issues of representation and resistance are not limited to the literary arena, but can also be found in speech. In the religious world, such an instance might include how God is addressed. Can a Christian, for example, talk to someone besides God in worship? This issue is particularly important in the Latin American context, where praying to ancestors or Mary is a common practice. American and European Evangelicals must remain particularly sensitive to such issues and be willing to explore the cultural suasion of indigenous religions. In a similar regard, Christians may need to think through their perspectives about intercession and how this relates to the Latin American context.
An important issue to recognize is that the Catholic church has been alternatively viewed as representing and resisting national governments. When the church was interested primarily in survival, it identified with government authority and alienated itself from the people. When revolutionist governments took control, the church was seen as an antiquated institution of colonialism (for more information, see the History section). In Mexico, for example, the government declared that it was no longer a Catholic country and priests were no longer allowed to wear their robes. This symbolized a retaliation against the Church which, up until the twentieth century, usually identified with the rich and powerful. With few exceptions, it is only recently that the Church became a vocal advocate for the poor.
Stories
In Brazil during the 1970s, Clodovis and Leonardo Boff helped develop CEBs (Base Ecclesial Community), which began to re-read the Bible in an anti-colonialist manner. This followed the see-judge-act methodology of Catholic Action. The steps required social analysis (see), interpretation (judge), and action of empowerment, especially in the poor (act). Under this new methodology, the Bible became re-encrypted as mirror stories of the present and freedom from oppression. In liberation hermeneutics, this is known as contrapuntal reading. The population’s history was re-read and freed from European influence. During this process, Marxism was often rejected as an explicit ideology due to its European roots. As persecution increased due to radicalism in community forces, 1975 brought less emphasis on revolution and a focus to God’s special presence in the suffering of the poor as an epistemological principle [3].
Dreams
Bartolome de las Casas (pictured right)
'Encomienda' a dream for conquistadors during the period of colonization. Encomienda was the supposed right of a conquistador to take the land of the natives and force them to work it. Christianity could then be shared with the natives as a result of colonial control of land (for more information, see History section). Unfortunately, the conquistadors did not steward the land and treated the natives harshly. Bartolome de las Casas (1484-1566) saw the unjust treatment of the natives as wrong. He became a priest and advocated for natives. Las Casas tried to create an egalitarian community where colonists and natives related as equals. In Mexico, las Casas took a radical step by refusing to offer communion to slave holders. At this point, he was asked to return to Spain. In Spain, las Casas attempted to reform the colonialist system. While encomienda was a contemporary dream for colonizers in Latin America, las Casas represented a dream of equality for the poor and the oppressed.
_________________________
[1] Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, 2nd ed. (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2006), 97.
[2] David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology (Boston, Mass.: Brill Academic, 2002), 178-199.Nationalism, Education, History
Description
Nationalism in Latin American Catholic Liberation Theology:
It may be, perhaps, better to speak of the lack of nationalism in the Latin American Liberation Movement. Theologies of Liberation do not tote multiple foci, but suggest that the world, socially and theologically, be viewed through the locus of the poor. Thus, one's national loyalty is determined by said nation's care, relationship, and theory regarding the lower class poor. As we have seen through its history, Liberationists have rejected governments that have not enacted a preferential option for the poor, and therein lies Liberation Theology's strong tie to Socialism, as it acknowledges and seeks to reconcile class struggle.
StoriesHistorical Origins of National Contempt
"The poverty of the Third World countries was the price to be paid for the First World to be able to enjoy the fruits of overabundance" [1].
Boff/Boff write that the Populist movements of the 50’s and 60s in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico “inspired nationalistic consciousness and significant industrial development in the shape of import substitution” [2]. As the middle and working class peoples benefited, low class poor suffered greatly. This, by way of capitalism, benefited wealthy nations, but left the masses in Latin America in shambles. Boff goes on to say, “This process led to the creation of strong popular movements seeking profound changes in the socio-economic structure of their countries…[which] provoked the rise of military dictatorships, which sought to safeguard or promote the interests of capital…through political repression and police control of all public demonstrations” [3].
One of the movements Boff speaks of is the Christians for Socialism Movement (which I must add is not Liberation Theology, but was a catalyst for Liberation Theology to speak to the situation). This movement sought to repair the oppression that an imperialist colonizing, global market brought them. They saw capitalism as the villain and Socialism as the hero as they declared:
The economic and social structures of our Latin American countries are grounded on oppression and injustice, which in turn is a result of our capitalist dependence on the great foreign power centers…We commit ourselves to the task of fashioning socialism because it is our objective conclusion…that this is the only effective way to combat imperialism and to break away from our situation of dependence. [4]
Movements like the CSM set the ethos of distrust and suspicion for government, radical revolution, a binaristic view of rich/poor, and a lack of nationalism which paved a way for theologians to create a socially theorized theology of liberation. The result of this was the endeavor to uphold the rights of the working class poor that were being stripped due to Capitalistic greed. A rise in national unions and movements occurred in Latin America consisting of, but not limited to:
-
-
- Young Christian Students
- Young Christian Workers
- Young Christian Agriculturists
- The Movement for Basic Education
- Church and Society in Latin America (ISAL)
- Latin American Confederation of Religious (CLAR) [5]
Marxism is never treated as a subject on its own but always from and in relation to the poor. Placing themselves firmly on the side of the poor, lib theologians ask Marx: “What can you tell us about the situation of poverty and ways of overcoming it?” Here Marxists are submitted to the judgment of the poor and their cause, and not the other way around. Therefore, Liberation Theology uses Marxism purely as an instrument. It does not venerate it as it venerates the gospel. Marx can be a companion on the way, but he can never be the guide, because, “You have only one teacher, the Christ (MT 23:10)" [6]
In Liberation Theology's early years, Latin America's populous lower class did not seem to have much of a nationalistic sentiment as illustrated by the dependence social theory, which argues that a neo-colonized nation defines itself as the periphery to their more powerful colonizing center. Thus, they are so strictly defined in their peripheral role by the center (the economic champion) that they cannot define themselves, resulting in a lack of nationalism. As Liberation Theology and the revolution movements came about, they criticized the center-powers and found a sort of nationalistic pride in their redefining process. Albeit, Liberation Theology is not fueled by a form of nationalism, or by the hope that they may reach a liberated state where they can be nationalistic, but is fueled by a theology which would give credit to God if liberation occurs.
DreamsThe dream for a Liberationist regarding Nationalism regard both social and eschatological. The liberationist looks forward to a time when the kingdom of God paradigm - that Jesus (Yes, we've hyperlinked "Jesus") spent his ministry teaching on and about - fully manifests on earth. As anti-escapists their purpose in life is to manifest this kingdom on earth. As Liberationists, the dream is to rid the world of all oppression whether, socio-economic, racial, etc. As concluding thoughts Boff writes:
Faith has decidedly taken on a a constructive function, contesting the existing order…taking on its responsibility in history, which is to persuade society to conform to the utopia of the kingdom (of God).” Consequently, Liberation Theology longs and fights for a new society in this world: an alternative society to capitalism, but really alternative and therefore going beyond capitalism as it exists today, but really alternative and going beyond socialism as it exists today . . . [7]
More Quotes regarding Liberation Theology and Nationalism:
Nelson Rockefellar sent by President Nixon in 1969 to Latin America to investigate the change is quoted to have said that the church there was changing into, “a force devoted to change, by revolutionary means if necessary” [8].
President Ronald Reagan: “American foreign policy must begin to counterattack Liberation Theology" [9]._________________________
Enrique Dussel remarked that Liberation Theologians are more of a threat to them than are militant Communists [10].
Pope John Paul II defined the root of the situation as, "the supremacy of capital—enjoyed by the few—over labor—practiced by the many” [11].
1. Leonardo Boff and Clodovis Boff, Introducing Liberation Theology (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1986), 68.
2. Boff, Liberation Theology, 66.
3. Boff, Liberation Theology, 67.
4. Deane William Ferm, Third World Liberation Theologies: An Introductory Survey (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1986), 14.
5. Boff, Liberation Theology, 67.
6. Boff, Liberation Theology, 28.
7. Boff, Liberation Theology, 94.
8. Boff, Liberation Theology, 86.
9. Boff, Liberation Theology, 86.
10. Boff, Liberation Theology, 67.
11. Boff, Liberation Theology, 67.
Hybridity, Indigeneity
Descriptions
1. Hybridity
Hybridization refers to the process of cultural mixing. It is a process in which colonized communities both critique and appropriate elements of a dominant culture. Such elements include music (with Latin music being a synthesis of European, African, and indigenous elements) and art (Arte Indocristiano – a form produced when the Spanish religious introduced European art to the indigenous population). The Spanish used other forms of art, namely a form of “indigenous theatre” (plays) in order to Christianize and colonize the Americas [1].
When speaking of Latin America and hybridity, it is also important to mention religion. As Latin America was conquered/colonized, Christianity was introduced to the indigenous population. In Europe, potential converts first underwent teachings before being baptized and accepted into the church. However, this was not the case in Latin America where indigenous persons were first baptized and taken into the church and only later (if at all) given serious teaching. This, along with strong ties to native religion, produced forms of Catholicism with indigenous elements.
2. Indigeneity
There are several indigenous peoples represented in Latin America, and are generally classified by language, environment, and cultural similarities.
According to the CIA’s The World Factbook, the countries with the highest percentage of indigenous population in Latin America are Bolivia (55%), Peru (45%), and Guatemala (40.6%). However, a number of other countries also have a significant indigenous population.
Several organizations exist with Latin America to promote and support indigenous people and indigenous movements. One such organization is the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin (COICA) in Lima, Peru. One of COICA’s objectives is “To promote, to develop and to impel the necessary mechanisms for the interaction of the Indigenous people and the organization’s members of COICA.”
Stories
In the late 1930s Jeronimo Camposeco was born into a Mayan Catholic household in Northwestern Guatemala. Jeronimo’s parents taught him to follow both Catholic teachings and to respect Mayan traditions. When he was born his parents called for Mayan priests to say prayers and to burn incense in both their home and in the sacred places in the mountains. They also taught Jeronimo to revere the Catholic saints and to participate in the celebrations of the patron saints [2].
Despite the effects of colonization and globalization there are still some indigenous tribes that remain untouched by civilization. However, many of these tribes are in danger because of illegal logging. Some reports indicate that there are at least 39 uncontacted tribes in the Amazon and that recently the Brazilian government has committed to going high-tech in an attempt to protect these vulnerable peoples. Pictured to the right is a photo released in May by the Brazilian Indian Protection Foundation (FUNAI) of one such untouched tribe.Dreams
In ways, ideas and outcomes of both hybridity and indigeneity should be encouraged. Hybridity should be encouraged to the extent that new ideas, forms of art, and perspectives are created and shared by all parties involved. It should not be a one way street where only the minority is affected by the majority, but a two way street in which both populations are enriched.
On the other hand, indigeneity should also be encouraged, in order to preserve ancient traditions and cultures. For example, the governments of the Amazon region, along with the people of the world, should continue to institute laws and practices in order to protect the untouched tribes of the Amazon.
___________________________[1] Diana Taylor, Theatre of Crisis: Drama and Politics in Latin America (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 29.
[2] E.L. Cleary and T.J. Steigenga, eds., Resurgent Voices in Latin America (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 2.
Ethnicity, Race
Description
Ethnicity and race, like gender, was not initially prioritized in the pioneer movements of Liberation Theologians. A highly diverse content of mixed peoples including African, European, and indigenous decent lines created a venue to combat discrimination based on ethnicity. Typically the African and indigenous decent lines were most oppressed within the continent. The mestizos, or mixed Latinos, were another ethnic group that encountered discrimination. Colonial rulers and compradors within the church did not allow mestizos to become ordained until the 1800s. Additionally, the colonial regime enforced a caste system, comprised of 100 categories, where natives and slaves were placed at the bottom.
Stories
Mestizo Christianity:
The Mestizo people refer to the race of mixed ethnicity in Latin America. With the influence of colonization and slave import, a blend of European, African, and native people were born. This race has traditionally been the most marginalized group in the region, even let unaddressed by early Liberation Theologians. Mesitzo theology encompasses eight directions: On behalf of life and liberation; on the side of the poor and oppressed; a qualified reading of history; the reformulation of our own identity; social location in hermeneutics, theology and scripture; a spirituality of hope in the struggle; the relationship between theology and pastoral action; and the Ecumenism from the base as a praxis of solidarity with oppressed people to bring about a new people without borders [1].
Black Theology: A Caribbean Perspective:
The Black religious experience in Jamaica attempted to rewrite their history with an anti-colonist perspective in Revivalism and Rastafarianism [2]. Revivalism’s goal was redemptionfrom white oppression that combined Christianity and West African myalism (witchcraft). Alexander Bedward claimed to be Jesus Christ and promised to ascend to heaven in 1920, thereby destroying the rule of the whites and establishing the kingdom on earth. Rastafarianism seeks black solidarity and dignity. Marcus Mosiah Garveyback-to-Africa movement. Ras Tafari, otherwise named Haile Selassie 1, Emperor of Ethiopia, and claimed to be Jesus Christ God Himself and stated that Jamaica was the Babylon, which held them in captivity of oppression to colonial regime. Rastafarianism worshiped him as the promised black God. was the first urged immigration to the promise land of Ethiopia, in the
Dreams
Church in Mission:
Church in mission should become the Messianic humanism against the laissez-faire capitalism, holding equal the proclamation of the gospel (kerygma) and demonstration of the gospel through service (diakonia). The eschatological perspective of the church should become realism and escapism, while the its model for liberation becomes “a theology of the world in the Church”[3]. The life in Christ should be determined on what you can do, not what you can’t and should be relevant to its country/ethnic problems in all aspects. The eschatological perspective of the church should become realism and escapism, while the its model for liberation becomes “a theology of the world in the Church” [3]. The life in Christ should be determined on what you can do, not what you can’t and should be relevant to its country/ethnic problems in all aspects.
God of Latin America:
Need to seek a different social order away from colonialist patriarchal Christianity and dominion to discover God within the native worldview of the Latino communities [4]. A new voice needs to be found for the indigenous and mestizo peoples, including for women, native cultures and religions to Latin America. On an attitude to overcome a history of oppression with hope to find liberation, Indigenous Andean Theology states, “We planted our ideas, we made our ideas germinate (that is, we did theology), for us to know how to survive in the midst of much hunger, to defend ourselves from so much scandal and attacks, to organize ourselves in the midst of so much confusion, to be elated despite so many sorrows, and to dream beyond so much desperation” [5]. The eschatological perspective of the church should become realism and escapism, while the its model for liberation becomes “a theology of the world in the Church” [3]. The life in Christ should be determined on what you can do, not what you cannot. The message of Christ should be found relevant to a country's ethnic problems in all aspects.
Description
1. Colonization of the New World
The discovery of the New World raised a number of theological questions for the Catholic Church. Popular understanding found the three known continents as a vestige of the trinity in the created world. The clear evidence of new continents brought from exploration required a fundamental rethinking of God’s relationship the geographical world. The problem came to head on the issue of temporal authority: the trinitarian organization of land was taken to legitimate the expanse of Christian rule [1]. If the traditional understanding was no longer intact, though, on what basis would the inhabitants of the New World be conquered?Ethnicity and race, like gender, was not initially prioritized in the pioneer movements of Liberation Theologians. A highly diverse content of mixed peoples including African, European, and indigenous decent lines created a venue to combat discrimination based on ethnicity. Typically the African and indigenous decent lines were most oppressed within the continent. The mestizos, or mixed Latinos, were another ethnic group that encountered discrimination. Colonial rulers and compradors within the church did not allow mestizos to become ordained until the 1800s. Additionally, the colonial regime enforced a caste system, comprised of 100 categories, where natives and slaves were placed at the bottom.
Stories
Mestizo Christianity:
The Mestizo people refer to the race of mixed ethnicity in Latin America. With the influence of colonization and slave import, a blend of European, African, and native people were born. This race has traditionally been the most marginalized group in the region, even let unaddressed by early Liberation Theologians. Mesitzo theology encompasses eight directions: On behalf of life and liberation; on the side of the poor and oppressed; a qualified reading of history; the reformulation of our own identity; social location in hermeneutics, theology and scripture; a spirituality of hope in the struggle; the relationship between theology and pastoral action; and the Ecumenism from the base as a praxis of solidarity with oppressed people to bring about a new people without borders [1].
Black Theology: A Caribbean Perspective:
The Black religious experience in Jamaica attempted to rewrite their history with an anti-colonist perspective in Revivalism and Rastafarianism [2]. Revivalism’s goal was redemptionfrom white oppression that combined Christianity and West African myalism (witchcraft). Alexander Bedward claimed to be Jesus Christ and promised to ascend to heaven in 1920, thereby destroying the rule of the whites and establishing the kingdom on earth. Rastafarianism seeks black solidarity and dignity. Marcus Mosiah Garveyback-to-Africa movement. Ras Tafari, otherwise named Haile Selassie 1, Emperor of Ethiopia, and claimed to be Jesus Christ God Himself and stated that Jamaica was the Babylon, which held them in captivity of oppression to colonial regime. Rastafarianism worshiped him as the promised black God. was the first urged immigration to the promise land of Ethiopia, in the
Dreams
Church in Mission:
Church in mission should become the Messianic humanism against the laissez-faire capitalism, holding equal the proclamation of the gospel (kerygma) and demonstration of the gospel through service (diakonia). The eschatological perspective of the church should become realism and escapism, while the its model for liberation becomes “a theology of the world in the Church”[3]. The life in Christ should be determined on what you can do, not what you can’t and should be relevant to its country/ethnic problems in all aspects. The eschatological perspective of the church should become realism and escapism, while the its model for liberation becomes “a theology of the world in the Church” [3]. The life in Christ should be determined on what you can do, not what you can’t and should be relevant to its country/ethnic problems in all aspects.
God of Latin America:
Need to seek a different social order away from colonialist patriarchal Christianity and dominion to discover God within the native worldview of the Latino communities [4]. A new voice needs to be found for the indigenous and mestizo peoples, including for women, native cultures and religions to Latin America. On an attitude to overcome a history of oppression with hope to find liberation, Indigenous Andean Theology states, “We planted our ideas, we made our ideas germinate (that is, we did theology), for us to know how to survive in the midst of much hunger, to defend ourselves from so much scandal and attacks, to organize ourselves in the midst of so much confusion, to be elated despite so many sorrows, and to dream beyond so much desperation” [5]. The eschatological perspective of the church should become realism and escapism, while the its model for liberation becomes “a theology of the world in the Church” [3]. The life in Christ should be determined on what you can do, not what you cannot. The message of Christ should be found relevant to a country's ethnic problems in all aspects.
[1] Aquino Vargas and Maria Pilar, “Direction and Foundations of Hispanic/Latino Theology: Toward a Mestiza Theology of Liberation,” Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology 1/1 (November, 1993), 5-21.
[2] Leo Noel, Decolonizing Theology: A Caribbean Perspective (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1979).
[3] Harvie M. Conn, "Contextualization: Where Do We Begin?" in Evangelicals and Liberation, ed. Carl E. Armerding (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1977), 60-89.
[4] Aquino Vargas, "Direction and Foundations of Hispanic/Latino Theology," 195.
[5] Pablo Richard, La Teologia de la Liberatcion en la Nueva Coyuntura, 6.
History, Place
Description
1. Colonization of the New World
The problem was quickly perceived by Columbus and the Spanish monarchs, who turned to the Pope for legitimization of and permission to continue their endeavors in the New World. Columbus himself was a devout Catholic and missionary effort was important to him. Columbus had hopes that whatever natives he encountered would be converted to Christianity and that any gold he found in the course of his travels could be used to fund a new crusade for the Holy Land [2]. Tradition had clearly stated that the pontiff had earthly authority over pagans who lived in territories of the former Roman empire or who could be considered under the rule of a Christian monarch. The inhabitants of the New World fell into neither category, yet, surely the pope had authority over human souls. In answering the new dilemma, Catholic thinkers relied upon the writings of the Scotsman John Mair. Mair drew heavily from Aristotle’s Politics, where humanity was divided into two categories: “natural slaves” and “natural rulers.” Mair found the natives of the Americas to fit into the former category. Following Mair, Catholic theologians found that the right of the Spanish crown to govern the inhabitants of the New World lied in the fact that they were natural slaves. Mair’s though won the day. The American natives needed to be governed by an enlightened and Christian ruler; it was a moral imperative. It should be noted that not all thinkers of the time agreed with Mair. Francisco de Vitoria of Norther Spain, for example, argued that the Indians showed signs of reason and so should (and could) not be deprived of their land, possessions, or labor. To Vitoria, the inhabitants of the Americas were as fully human as the Spanish, the Italians, or the French. Many Catholics also joined in the fight against Mair. The Dominican Antonio de Montesinos, in a sermon in 1511, accused Spaniards of mortal sin for their poor treatment of the natives. Colonists, argued Montesinos, did not possess the right to deprive the natives of just compensation for their labor, land, or possessions. Offended, the Spaniards voiced their complaint to the Spanish crown. Montesinos and his associate, Pedro de Córdoba, successfully argued their case before the Spanish court, leading to the Laws of the Burgos, the first set of legal codes intended to give protection to the natives of the New World. The Laws forbade colonists from harsh and wanton treatment, encouraging instead their conversion to Christianity.
Bartolomé de las Casas (pictured right) proved to be another influential figure in the fight for equal treatment of the natives. Las Casas was appalled by the genocide in Hispaniola, watching first-hand as the Indian population suffered from Spanish cruelty. In a 1514 sermon, Las Casas protested by collocating idol sacrifice and mistreatment of human beings. Las Casas sought to strengthen the Laws of the Burgos, though the death of King Ferdinand impeded his efforts. In 1515, Las Casas was given the official title of “Protector of the Indies” [3]. Las Casas legacy revolves around his insistence that evangelization in the New World be carried out peacefully. Las Casas’s arguments were influential upon Pope Paul III, who in 1537 issued a papal bull that affirmed the rationality of the Indians. Unfortunately, much of the New World had already been conquered by this time. The issue of Pope Paul’s bull did not bring quick solution to the racism and bigotry inspired by John Mair. Even through the 1550s, theologians were still debating the human identity of the inhabitants of the New World. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, an opponent of Las Casas, continued to maintain that the natives did not have souls and so could not be considered fully human. As such, the natives were meant to serve Spanish needs and goals. The Catholic church ultimately sided against Sepúlveda, deciding that the Spanish could only legitimately govern the natives if they had their consent. The decision was an important conceptual victory for the idea of equality, but with colonization of the New World virtually complete, the decision was practically moot._______________
[2] David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology (Boston, Mass.: Brill Academic, 2002), 15.
[3] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 21.
2. Early Efforts at Evangelism
Friar Bernard Boyl was the first priest to arrive in America. The papal bull Piis fidelium (1493) gave Boyl enormous power and charged him with the responsibility of evangelizing the New World. The evangelization of Santo Domingo began in 1500 with the coming of a Franciscan mission. In 1505, the Franciscans created the Mission of the West Indies [1]. In 1508, the Spanish monarchs were given an appropriated power by Pope Julius II through the Patronato Real. The Patronato granted Ferdinand and Isabel the right to appoint bishops and other church staff for its settlements in the New World [2]. In exchange, the crown would also pay for the church’s expenses, financing missionary efforts. In 1515, Pope Leo X confirmed a similar power to the Portuguese monarchs under the Padroado Real [3].
The Patronato and Padroado guaranteed that all missionary efforts would be directly tied to Spanish and Portuguese colonial interests. In Mexico, conquistadors found that natives accepted missionary efforts much easier after conquest. While Cortés began the conquest of Mexico in 1519, evangelization did not occur until 1524 with the arrival of Franciscan missionaries. By 1559, Mexico was populated by over 160 houses of the various Catholic orders. Francisco Pizarro arrived in Peru around 1529. In 1537, the first Peruvian diocese was created by Pope Paul III. The missionary efforts of early evangelists consisted of itinerant preaching and efforts to eradicate idolatry. The general approach was to assume that the Indian mind was a tabula rosa. Even still, preaching was done in the indigenous language as often as possible [4]. In 1551, a meeting to plan the organization of the “new Church of the Indies” occurred in Cuzco. The meeting was conducted and recorded in Spanish rather than Latin. Also, catechumenates were to be instructed in their indigenous language [5]. The meeting also divided Peruvian society into two distinct classes: white Hispanic urban dwellers and rural Indians.
While missionary effort centered upon changing the opinions and daily activities of the natives, they also needed to couch their teachings in images and metaphors that were easily understandable. In appealing to the native imagination, traditional catholic practices like the the veneration of saints often only served to mask the continued worship of pre-Hispanic gods [6]. An individual may be susceptible to instantaneous conversion, but the evangelization of a society proved to be a far more difficult task.
One of the lasting ways that colonialists attempted to evangelize the indigenous society was through the establishment of colonialist settlements. State sponsorship of church missionary activity under the Patroato and Padroado meant that churches were built at the center of Spanish and Portuguese towns and cities. Each settlement was given a rather uniform model consisting of a central plaza surrounded by a church (or cathedral for more populated areas) and important buildings of civil government [7]. The mixture of civil and religious authority meant that local aristocracy, mainly land owners, found it more beneficial to live closer to the plaza. Distance from the plaza became associated with one’s place on the social order. By keeping rich company, the church was often led to spend considerable sums on church maintenance and construction. Social-economic status invariably became a central factor of religious possibility, as often only elites were allowed to become members of religious orders [8].
_____________
[1] Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation (1492-1979), trans. Alan Neely (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1981), 47
[2] David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology (Boston, Mass.: Brill Academic, 2002), 18.
[3] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 18. The Padroado Real was confirmed permanently in 1551 by Pope Julius III.
[4] Dussel, A History of hte Church in Latin America, 50.
[5] Dussel, A History of hte Church in Latin America, 56.
[6] Justo Gonzalez, A History of Latin America (New York, N.Y.; Cambridge University Press, 2007), 57.
[7] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 19.
[8] Gonzalez, Latin America, 77.
3. From Colonization to Industrialization
Changing political situations in Europe, particularly the Napoleonic invasions of the early 19th century, created power vacuums on the American continents [1]. The capture of Seville in 1810 by French forces created a unique opportunity for Latin American countries to realize dreams for independence. The Spanish junta, weakened by the new political climate, was simply unable to maintain control of their central and south American colonies. In the same year (1810), both ColombiaChile took their first steps toward independence.
The United States, with its recently achieved independence, became a quick supporter of Latin American movements against European powers. In 1823, US President James Monroe supported a policy that became known as the Monroe Doctrine (pictured right). Under the Monroe Doctrine, America was said to be for the Americas and European powers were warned not to interfere in American affairs [2]. The Monroe Doctrine provided an easy cover for the US to maintain its interests in Central and South America. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt pushed the Monroe Doctrine to help Panama liberate itself from Colombia, protecting US interests in the development of the Panama Canal.
As South and Central American countries sought independence, the Church continued in colonial attitudes that understood church authority as tied to political authority. The collapse of conservative governments to more socially minded revolutionaries often meant a new liberation from state religions. As liberalism gradually ascended to political power, the church was cast to the side as the remnant of an antiquated political ideology. New governments were quick to cease upon the rights of the Patronato’s, claiming the right to appoint replacement bishops for those deposed as remnants of former governments. The refusal of the Catholic church to recognize such appointments created many empty dioceses [3].
With the stock market crash of 1929, Latin American countries saw a sharp decline in demand for their main exports (coffee and sugar in Brazil; metal in Bolivia and Chile; beef in Argentina). The depression revealed how dependent Latin American economies were on world events [4]. WW2 increased demand for exports from Latin American countries, but hindered the ability to maintain necessary amounts of imports. This created a difficult situation for Latin American countries that were dependent upon foreign economies for finished goods.
The United States was willing to offer technical and financial assistance in exchange for support in the war effort, encouraging Latin American countries to develop import substitution initiatives (ISI). Financial need and the global depression exacerbated a cycle of dependence upon foreign economies. With WW2, Latin American countries found themselves increasingly dependent upon the United States. Industrialization to feed the war effort caused rapid job growth in urban centers. The development of an industrial working class also caused changes on the political scene, creating a socially conscious electorate concentrated in urban areas.
Catholic doctrine remained largely unchanged from 1900 to the 1950s. Two influential publications, however, captured the mind of the working class. In 1931, Pope Pius XI published a restatement of the social encyclical Rerum Novarum entitled Quadragesimo Anno (After Forty Years) [5]. The Quadragesimo singled out the working classes as victims of oppression and inhumane conditions, urging public authorities to place special premium upon caring for the lower classes. The Quadregesimo’s statements on poverty would become foundational thought for liberation theology’s ‘preferential option for the poor.’ A second event was the publication of French thinker Jacques Maritain’s work Integral Humanism in 1934 [6]. Maritain recognized that a central problem of “old” Christianity was its seeking legitimization through social structures, thereby maintaining control over political affairs. Maritain suggested that a “new Christendom” could be achieved through the Catholic church concentrating on moral influence through social teaching. Maritain’s thought found a unique voice in Latin America through the development of liberation theology.
__________
[1] David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology (Boston, Mass.: Brill Academic, 2002), 28-29.
[2] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 34.
[3] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 41-42.
[4] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 49.
[5] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 56-57.
[6] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 55.
The Patronato and Padroado guaranteed that all missionary efforts would be directly tied to Spanish and Portuguese colonial interests. In Mexico, conquistadors found that natives accepted missionary efforts much easier after conquest. While Cortés began the conquest of Mexico in 1519, evangelization did not occur until 1524 with the arrival of Franciscan missionaries. By 1559, Mexico was populated by over 160 houses of the various Catholic orders. Francisco Pizarro arrived in Peru around 1529. In 1537, the first Peruvian diocese was created by Pope Paul III. The missionary efforts of early evangelists consisted of itinerant preaching and efforts to eradicate idolatry. The general approach was to assume that the Indian mind was a tabula rosa. Even still, preaching was done in the indigenous language as often as possible [4]. In 1551, a meeting to plan the organization of the “new Church of the Indies” occurred in Cuzco. The meeting was conducted and recorded in Spanish rather than Latin. Also, catechumenates were to be instructed in their indigenous language [5]. The meeting also divided Peruvian society into two distinct classes: white Hispanic urban dwellers and rural Indians.While missionary effort centered upon changing the opinions and daily activities of the natives, they also needed to couch their teachings in images and metaphors that were easily understandable. In appealing to the native imagination, traditional catholic practices like the the veneration of saints often only served to mask the continued worship of pre-Hispanic gods [6]. An individual may be susceptible to instantaneous conversion, but the evangelization of a society proved to be a far more difficult task. One of the lasting ways that colonialists attempted to evangelize the indigenous society was through the establishment of colonialist settlements. State sponsorship of church missionary activity under the Patroato and Padroado meant that churches were built at the center of Spanish and Portuguese towns and cities. Each settlement was given a rather uniform model consisting of a central plaza surrounded by a church (or cathedral for more populated areas) and important buildings of civil government [7]. The mixture of civil and religious authority meant that local aristocracy, mainly land owners, found it more beneficial to live closer to the plaza. Distance from the plaza became associated with one’s place on the social order. By keeping rich company, the church was often led to spend considerable sums on church maintenance and construction. Social-economic status invariably became a central factor of religious possibility, as often only elites were allowed to become members of religious orders [8].
_____________
[1] Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation (1492-1979), trans. Alan Neely (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1981), 47
[2] David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology (Boston, Mass.: Brill Academic, 2002), 18.
[3] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 18. The Padroado Real was confirmed permanently in 1551 by Pope Julius III.
[4] Dussel, A History of hte Church in Latin America, 50.
[5] Dussel, A History of hte Church in Latin America, 56.
[6] Justo Gonzalez, A History of Latin America (New York, N.Y.; Cambridge University Press, 2007), 57.
[7] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 19.
[8] Gonzalez, Latin America, 77.
3. From Colonization to Industrialization
Changing political situations in Europe, particularly the Napoleonic invasions of the early 19th century, created power vacuums on the American continents [1]. The capture of Seville in 1810 by French forces created a unique opportunity for Latin American countries to realize dreams for independence. The Spanish junta, weakened by the new political climate, was simply unable to maintain control of their central and south American colonies. In the same year (1810), both ColombiaChile took their first steps toward independence.
The United States, with its recently achieved independence, became a quick supporter of Latin American movements against European powers. In 1823, US President James Monroe supported a policy that became known as the Monroe Doctrine (pictured right). Under the Monroe Doctrine, America was said to be for the Americas and European powers were warned not to interfere in American affairs [2]. The Monroe Doctrine provided an easy cover for the US to maintain its interests in Central and South America. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt pushed the Monroe Doctrine to help Panama liberate itself from Colombia, protecting US interests in the development of the Panama Canal. As South and Central American countries sought independence, the Church continued in colonial attitudes that understood church authority as tied to political authority. The collapse of conservative governments to more socially minded revolutionaries often meant a new liberation from state religions. As liberalism gradually ascended to political power, the church was cast to the side as the remnant of an antiquated political ideology. New governments were quick to cease upon the rights of the Patronato’s, claiming the right to appoint replacement bishops for those deposed as remnants of former governments. The refusal of the Catholic church to recognize such appointments created many empty dioceses [3].
With the stock market crash of 1929, Latin American countries saw a sharp decline in demand for their main exports (coffee and sugar in Brazil; metal in Bolivia and Chile; beef in Argentina). The depression revealed how dependent Latin American economies were on world events [4]. WW2 increased demand for exports from Latin American countries, but hindered the ability to maintain necessary amounts of imports. This created a difficult situation for Latin American countries that were dependent upon foreign economies for finished goods.
The United States was willing to offer technical and financial assistance in exchange for support in the war effort, encouraging Latin American countries to develop import substitution initiatives (ISI). Financial need and the global depression exacerbated a cycle of dependence upon foreign economies. With WW2, Latin American countries found themselves increasingly dependent upon the United States. Industrialization to feed the war effort caused rapid job growth in urban centers. The development of an industrial working class also caused changes on the political scene, creating a socially conscious electorate concentrated in urban areas.Catholic doctrine remained largely unchanged from 1900 to the 1950s. Two influential publications, however, captured the mind of the working class. In 1931, Pope Pius XI published a restatement of the social encyclical Rerum Novarum entitled Quadragesimo Anno (After Forty Years) [5]. The Quadragesimo singled out the working classes as victims of oppression and inhumane conditions, urging public authorities to place special premium upon caring for the lower classes. The Quadregesimo’s statements on poverty would become foundational thought for liberation theology’s ‘preferential option for the poor.’ A second event was the publication of French thinker Jacques Maritain’s work Integral Humanism in 1934 [6]. Maritain recognized that a central problem of “old” Christianity was its seeking legitimization through social structures, thereby maintaining control over political affairs. Maritain suggested that a “new Christendom” could be achieved through the Catholic church concentrating on moral influence through social teaching. Maritain’s thought found a unique voice in Latin America through the development of liberation theology.
__________
[1] David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology (Boston, Mass.: Brill Academic, 2002), 28-29.
[2] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 34.
[3] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 41-42.
[4] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 49.
[5] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 56-57.
[6] Tombs, Liberation Theology, 55.
Stories
As mentioned above, the story of Bartolome de las Casas tells a beautiful story of what the legacy of the Catholic Church in Latin America could have looked like. Liberation theologians would later look back on the social justice concerns of las Casas as an inspiration and, more importantly, as a legacy to be inherited. The deconstructionst tools employed by liberation theology would, in large part, be an attempt to liberate religion from the political sphere and realize the vision of Bartolome de las Casas.
The spread of the gospel by Catholic missionaries in South America was the subject of the Roland Joffé's 1986 movie The Mission (trailer to the right), starring Robert De Niro. De Niro played Rodrigo Mendoza, an 18th century Spanish Jesuit who tried to protect a small tribe from being enslaved by Portugal.
In the modern era, attention might also be drawn to the papal encyclicals of Pope Pius XI (see above). Pope Pius helped set the agenda for future popes in the 20th century and raised concern for the Catholic Church's relationship to social injustice. Since the 1930s, the Catholic Church has become the largest charitable organization in the world.
Dreams
When a Nicaraguan group gathered to read the story of the Alabaster bottle in Matt. 26:6-13, the reading of the people centered almost entirely on liberation themes. The people of the group reject whole-heartedly the idea that the poor will always be present, as Jesus says in the story, because they refuse to believe that the future kingdom of God will have poor people. The force of Jesus’ words is parlayed to the hope of the future life. The ideals of the kingdom is then transported into what we should do today and how we should act accordingly. The actions of the woman are seen as a type of how we should act. Her offering to Jesus is taken as representative of the actions we should have to the poor. The people of the group reject whole-heartedly the idea that the poor will always be present, as Jesus says in the story, because they refuse to believe that the future kingdom of God will have poor people. The force of Jesus’ words is parlayed to the hope of the future life. The ideals of the kingdom is then transported into what we should do today and how we should act accordingly. The actions of the woman are seen as a type of how we should act. Her offering to Jesus is taken as representative of the actions we should have to the poor [1]._____________
[1] "A Nicaraguan Example: The Alabaster Bottle - Matt 26:6-13" in Voices from the Margins, ed. R.S. Sugirtharajah (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2006), 454-459.
Feminism
Description
Latin American Feminist Liberation Theology:
Historically, Latin American Feminist perspective developed alongside the anti-colonialism movement of Liberation Theology. It is categorically described as a second-wave feminism, focusing on issues of inequality and discrimination as a post-colonial movement in the late 1960s to the 1980s (See History of Feminism). Focusing on freeing the poor, gender specific oppression was not addressed in the first decades of the male-dominated culture. The late 1970’s to mid 1980’s brought a strong involvement of females to counter-discourse the marginalization of being poor and female.
Elsa Tamez was one of the first women to demand the need for liberation theology from a Latina female perspective. Maria Pilar Aquino, Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz and Rigoberta Menchú. A series of international meetings enforced a basis for organized action including the Project of Women in Dialogue (Puebla, Mexico, 1979), the Second Latin American Feminist Conference (Lima, Peru, 1983), and the Latin American Conference on Theology from the Perspective of Women (Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1985) [1]. The latter meeting
established the framework for the Feminist movement, recognizing the need to address gender and ethnic discrimination in a patriarchal system for ultimate social, spiritual and physical liberation.
Feminist Liberation Theology focuses on contrapuntal reading (Said), rereading Biblical hermeneutics. Methods for freedom involve both praxis and theology in a three-part movement: Analyze personal experiences to locate oppression, examine the Bible as practical application, and redeem and restore women’s value from a patriarchal society to the egalitarian community of Christians God had indented. Additional major figures include
Historically, Latin American Feminist perspective developed alongside the anti-colonialism movement of Liberation Theology. It is categorically described as a second-wave feminism, focusing on issues of inequality and discrimination as a post-colonial movement in the late 1960s to the 1980s (See History of Feminism). Focusing on freeing the poor, gender specific oppression was not addressed in the first decades of the male-dominated culture. The late 1970’s to mid 1980’s brought a strong involvement of females to counter-discourse the marginalization of being poor and female.
Elsa Tamez was one of the first women to demand the need for liberation theology from a Latina female perspective. Maria Pilar Aquino, Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz and Rigoberta Menchú. A series of international meetings enforced a basis for organized action including the Project of Women in Dialogue (Puebla, Mexico, 1979), the Second Latin American Feminist Conference (Lima, Peru, 1983), and the Latin American Conference on Theology from the Perspective of Women (Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1985) [1]. The latter meeting
established the framework for the Feminist movement, recognizing the need to address gender and ethnic discrimination in a patriarchal system for ultimate social, spiritual and physical liberation. Feminist Liberation Theology focuses on contrapuntal reading (Said), rereading Biblical hermeneutics. Methods for freedom involve both praxis and theology in a three-part movement: Analyze personal experiences to locate oppression, examine the Bible as practical application, and redeem and restore women’s value from a patriarchal society to the egalitarian community of Christians God had indented. Additional major figures include
Stories
Virgin of Guadalupe:
Appeared to Juan Diego, the lowest of the poor to help liberated him and related to God and the surrounding world differently. The Virgin legitimized the mestizo race, however, traditional colonialist standards called Marianismo utilized the image for oppressive measures [2].
Virgin Mary:
Marian theology holds a feminist assumption that by rereading scripture she becomes the ideal feminist and image to help liberate the oppressed [3]. Elisabeth Schussler-Fiorenza argued for the deconstruction of patriarchal Mariology (subordinate role for oppression used towards women in ministry) to the concept of saints and Mary as role models and companions for females on spiritual journeys. Rosemary Radford Ruether was one of the first theological to discuss the feminist approach to Mary.
Mujeristas:
As spiritual gifts are equal, so should be the treatment and power of Hispanic women. They are the ‘remnant:’ those who are exiled, chosen, oppressed, and favored by God. The goal is to enable women to understand oppressive structures in daily life and define preferred future to radically change situation [4].
Dreams
Gal 2:27-28:
The ultimate Biblical Scripture to lead women in the Exodus from Patriarchy as they struggle to achieve equality in God’s calling and purpose [5]. “For…those who have put on Christ, there is neither Jew nor Greek; there is neither slave nor free; there is no male or female; for you are all one.” The deconstruction of traditional social and religious oppressive roles ascribed to subordinate women by men needing dominance is ultimately broken in this Pauline statement for gender equality. Following in the footsteps of Mary Daly, women need to challenge patriarchal customs and laws within the church to radically create a feminist manifesto and sisterhood for continuing change.
Re-inscription
Elsa Tamez urges women to reread the Bible in regards to the historic male-dominated societies [6]. It should be read and re-interpreted from a woman’s perspective and applied to current life events, as done by Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza. Women are part of the marginalized that the Bible and the Christsolidarity and create new images of empowerment to reinforce equality in the church and society. have favored. Women need to build.
_____________
[1] Ivone Gebara, “Women Doing Theology in Latin America,” in Feminist Theology from the Third World, ed. U. King (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1994), 47-59.
[2] Gail Perez, “Ana Castillo as Santera: Reconstructing Popular Religious Praxis.” in A Reader in Latina Feminist Theology: Religion and Justice, 53-79.
[3] Natalie K. Watson, Feminist Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2003), 43.
[4] Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, “The Task of Hispanic Women’s Liberation Theology-Mujeristas: Who We Are and What We Are About," in Feminist Theology from the Third World: A Reader, ed. U. King (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1994), 88-104.
[5] Joann Wolski Conn, “Discipleship of Equals: Past, Present, Future," in Horizons on Catholic Feminist Theology, ed. J. W. Conn and W. E. Conn (Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 1992), 1-49.
[6] Elsa Tamez, “Women’s Rereading of the Bible,.” in Voices from the Margin, ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997), 26-62.
[2] Gail Perez, “Ana Castillo as Santera: Reconstructing Popular Religious Praxis.” in A Reader in Latina Feminist Theology: Religion and Justice, 53-79.
[3] Natalie K. Watson, Feminist Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2003), 43.
[4] Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, “The Task of Hispanic Women’s Liberation Theology-Mujeristas: Who We Are and What We Are About," in Feminist Theology from the Third World: A Reader, ed. U. King (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1994), 88-104.
[5] Joann Wolski Conn, “Discipleship of Equals: Past, Present, Future," in Horizons on Catholic Feminist Theology, ed. J. W. Conn and W. E. Conn (Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 1992), 1-49.
[6] Elsa Tamez, “Women’s Rereading of the Bible,.” in Voices from the Margin, ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997), 26-62.
Production and Consumption
Description
In the discourse of Post-Colonial Theory production and consumption signify a dialectical arena in which the investigation of the convoluted processes of cultural production and consumption take place. What is at stake in these processes is nothing less than meaning and value. Post-Colonial Theory is a complex field of inquiry itself. It combines the disciplines of political and social philosophy, critical theory, sociology, anthropology, and semiotics among others. In order to understand how it has come to some of its modes of investigation it will be helpful to briefly trace some of these disciplines. This will be done in relation to the sub-field of production and consumption, yet the hope is that it will also be helpful in understanding Post-Colonial Theory as a whole. This very brief description will lead into production and consumption's relation to Liberation Theology. Because both Post-Colonial Theory and Liberation Theology are indebted to the Marxist tradition we begin with a classic and relevant quote from Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto. Speaking to the bourgeoisie,
"The selfish misconception that induces you to transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason, the social forms springing from your present mode of production and form of property—historical relations that rise and disappear in the progress of production—this misconception you share with every ruling class that has proceeded you." [1]
Here we see that those within bourgeois society were protesting the communist desire to destroy the social relations that the bourgeoisie saw as “eternal laws of nature and of reason”. The irony, according to Marx and Engels, is that it is exactly the bourgeois epoch that made this possible. They argue that the need for constantly reinventing the means of production has caused all social relations to be reinvented as well. According to Marx and Engel's, along with the commodification of all things, including the reification of humanity, capitalism has shown that there are no fixed cultural meanings but rather that in its path, “all that is solid melts into thin air” [2]. Put differently, all cultural meaning and value is subsumed to the demands of the market and its dictates.
Taking up Marx along with Nietzsche, Freud and Heidegger as well as some of the insights of structuralism--for instance the idea that the individual parts of a social structure, such as an individual human subject, only find meaning in their relation to the whole--the multifarious field of post-structuralismhas arrived at many of the same conclusions. The early work of the French philosopher and sociologist Michel Foucault discloses that it is most often those with power who determine what counts as knowledge, i.e. what is or is not meaningful and/or valuable. Jacques Derrida’s work has also done much in suggesting that the meanings conveyed through different cultural lenses are not directly connected to ultimate rock-bottom reality, and thus they are not necessary.
In the present day, many have argued that power and the production of meaning are almost always wedded to those on the receiving end of economic flow. Taking up this insight and following a Marxist, post-structuralist, postmodern trajectory—in the recognition that cultural meaning and value are contingent, often produced through power—Post-colonial Theory seeks to unearth the discursive relations that construct these important aspects of culture [3]. Some examples of this would be Edward Said's work on Orientalism as well as Homi Bahbha's work [4]--which makes use of many of the same post-stucturalist tools that Said does in order to argue, against Said, that the differance present in the colonial discourse itself offers opportunities for resistance and subversion. As literature and writing are often the means through which cultural meaning, value and knowledge are constructed the arena of production and consumption is especially concerned with examining literature. Yet, as with little else in the present world this is not an isolated area of study.
In an essay by Philip G. Altbach, "Literary Colonialism: Books in the Third World", it becomes evident that to examine literature one must consider many other factors. In this essay Altbach examines the economic and political modalities and relations that make literature production and consumption possible in the “third world” [5]. Writing in protest can be another avenue of investigation and even resistance. In questioning Fredrick Jameson’s statement that “all third world texts are necessarily… to be read as… national allegories”, Aijaz Ahmad reveals and resists an attempt to fix meaning [6]. Ahmad’s resistance is especially important as Jameson’s authority, and thus ability to produce knowledge, comes from his powerful position as a prominent Marxist scholar and cultural theorist in the “first world” academy.
Stories
In 1971 the Latin American Catholic theologian Gustavo Gutierrez published his seminal work Teologia de la Liberacion. This work and the movement that it both represented and progressed, Liberation Theology, constitute a prime example of the processes involved in production and consumption, and in addition reveal the biases that previously determined production and consumption in this field. Not only was the movement part of a larger resistance towards what it, as well as many others, considered unjust economic policies being enforced from the first world[7]—a process that has been called a new form of colonialism—but it was also a movement that sought to define the meaning and role of a religion’s sacred text and tradition for a certain community, namely the poor of Latin America. In the movement of Latin American Liberation Theology the question over who was able to produce meaning and value was addressed head on. Fortunately Latin America had developed a rather sophisticated printing press by this time and thus texts such as Guiterrez’s could be printed locally [8].
However, the most pressing questions, that of who was able to produce theological meaning and a hermeneutics of ecclesial value, were still at stake. Many Latin American theologians advocated for the use of Marxist critical analysis as a helpful tool in social examination and theological reasoning. In light of this and other routes of meticulous analysis they found that the social and economic disparities that abounded were due to structural injustices brought about by the expansion of capital and its imperial promoters. Included in this was the idea of development. This was the understanding, that came from those in the West, that if the countries of Latin America followed the paths of the Western nations; the industrial revolution, free market economies, etc., they would become as wealthy as them. Among other things one of the factors that this idea did not take note of, according to Liberation Theologians, was that the wealth of the Western nations was secured off of the resources and labor of the poorer ones [9].
Those on the other side of the imperial divide, those benefiting from the economic and political relations, could not have disagreed more. The American Christian economist, Gary North, suggested that Third-world poverty was due to, “moral perversity, a long history of demonism, and outright paganism” [10]. David Chilton of the Institute for Christian Economics believed that poverty is how “God controls heathen cultures” [11].
Possibly the most well known among these was the American Catholic theologian Michael Novak who dedicated much of his work to refuting Liberation Theology. According to Novak corporate capitalism “mirrors God’s presence” on earth [12]. Ironically, Novak’s “theology of the corporation” was not built on the examination of economic and political relations, but rather on the presumption that Latin America’s lack of modernization was due to indigenous cultural factors that prevented capitalist development [13].
Through all of these engagements theologians in the West, specifically in the United States, were attempting to challenge the notion that the indigenous in Latin American had the ability and right to (1) discern the socio-politico-economic factors subjugating them and (2) speak prophetically against these forces using the rich Christian theological tradition. As has so often characterized the West, those in opposition to Liberation Theology were skeptical of anything that came into being outside of and challenged their limited, ethnocentric paradigm and all too willing to put their theology to work buttressing imperial projects.
Dreams
In his book The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama famously declared that with the fall of the Berlin Wall the end of history had come. For Fukuyama it was not that events would cease to happen but rather that the great ideological battles had ceased in the rise of liberal-democratic capitalism. While many have critiqued this Hegelian proclamation of vast ideological, audacious and ethnocentric proportions, and while Fukuyama has since revised his views, there is a kernel of truth in them. At the current moment there seems to be no projects that can counter or even exist outside of the spread of capital. Ivan Petrella, in his work The Future of Liberation Theology: An Argument and Manifesto, argues that the most substantial hurdle to be overcome by Liberation Theology is the present lack of realizable alternatives to capitalism. "In my mind," Petrella remarks, "all the other changes need to be understood in relation to the demise of the socialist alternative. For liberation theology, the fall of the Berlin Wall represents the loss of a practical alternative to capitalism. In fact the prospect of an alternative seems to have disappeared from view.” Petrella goes on to argue that present day liberation theologian’s responses to the problems Liberation Theology faces all “…suffer from a common defect—the inability to devise concrete alternatives to the current social order” [14].
A dream of Petrella's is that Liberation Theology will begin to do more than offer an in depth account of poverty and instead theorize and even construct new political, social and economic alternatives to capitalism. One aspect of this is the continued production and consumption of narratives that articulate the present inequalities and recognize both their contingency and reliance on ideology. In other words, it is the Church's job to tell our history truthfully in a way that pays attention to the present inequalities and the factors contributing to them. When the Church is able to produce such a narrative it is able to both produce resistance to injustice as well as enable future generations to consume a story that truthfully articulates where the Church has been and where it needs to go. Another dream is that Liberation Theology does not die out in light of the other world spirituality that often accompanies Pentecostal Christianity--one of, if not the fastest growing expressions of the Christian faith world wide [15]. This again becomes a matter of truthful narration. The hope is that the Church will tell the story of Israel, Christ, the Church and salvation in a way that makes it clear that the Kingdom of God has indeed broken into our present reality in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and that in light of this there are new ways to live that challenge the world's greedy, fearful and dominating ways of structuring political, economic and social life. The Church should continue to produce and embody a meaningful, theologically rich, and practical critique of the world that the future generations of the Church can consume, embody and carry forth. This will necessarily be an immanent critique, however, this fact is not a hindrance. Rather, in light of the Incarnation, it should be seen as a continuation of the work of the God who entered, and continues to enter into our chaotic history to save us from ourselves.
_______________
[1] Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, trans. Samuel Moore (New York: Penguin Classics, 2002), 221.
[2] Marx, The Communist Manifesto, 222.
[3] See: Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, 2nd ed. (New York, N.Y.: Routedge, 2006); Graham Huggan, The Postcolonial Exotic (New York: Routledge, 2001).
[4] See: Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader.
[5] See: Bill Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader; Philip G. Altback, “Literary Colonialism: Books in the Third World,” Harvard Educational Review vol. 45 no. 2 (May 1975).
[6] Bill Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader; Aijaz Ahmad, “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the ‘National Allegory,’” Social Text 17 (Fall 1987): 84.
[7] e.g.: The 1954 CIA coup in Guatemala that ended the countries democracy and put in place a regime that would go on to kill hundreds of thousands of its citizens; the CIA role in the overthrow of Salvador Allende in Chile in 1973; US sanctioning of and possible involvement in coups in Uruguay in 1973 and Argentina in 1976; Regan's Central American wars of the 1980's; the IMF's demands for access to natural resources and high interest rates for the release of loan funds.
[8] Ahmad, “Jameson’s Rhetoric”; Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader.
[9]See: Jose Miguez-Bonino, “Marxist Critical Tools: Are They Helpful in Breaking the Stranglehold of Idealistic Hermeneutics?,” in Voices from the Margins: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World, 3rd. ed., ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2006), 40-48; Gustavo Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, N.Y..: Orbis Books, 1988); and, Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).
[10] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 148.
[11] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 149.
[12] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 147.
[13] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop.
[14] Ivan Petrella, The Future of Liberation Theology: An Argument and Manifesto (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004), 2.
[15] See: Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion is Christianity: The Gospel beyond the West (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Erdmans, 2003), 95-130.
In the discourse of Post-Colonial Theory production and consumption signify a dialectical arena in which the investigation of the convoluted processes of cultural production and consumption take place. What is at stake in these processes is nothing less than meaning and value. Post-Colonial Theory is a complex field of inquiry itself. It combines the disciplines of political and social philosophy, critical theory, sociology, anthropology, and semiotics among others. In order to understand how it has come to some of its modes of investigation it will be helpful to briefly trace some of these disciplines. This will be done in relation to the sub-field of production and consumption, yet the hope is that it will also be helpful in understanding Post-Colonial Theory as a whole. This very brief description will lead into production and consumption's relation to Liberation Theology. Because both Post-Colonial Theory and Liberation Theology are indebted to the Marxist tradition we begin with a classic and relevant quote from Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto. Speaking to the bourgeoisie,
"The selfish misconception that induces you to transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason, the social forms springing from your present mode of production and form of property—historical relations that rise and disappear in the progress of production—this misconception you share with every ruling class that has proceeded you." [1]Here we see that those within bourgeois society were protesting the communist desire to destroy the social relations that the bourgeoisie saw as “eternal laws of nature and of reason”. The irony, according to Marx and Engels, is that it is exactly the bourgeois epoch that made this possible. They argue that the need for constantly reinventing the means of production has caused all social relations to be reinvented as well. According to Marx and Engel's, along with the commodification of all things, including the reification of humanity, capitalism has shown that there are no fixed cultural meanings but rather that in its path, “all that is solid melts into thin air” [2]. Put differently, all cultural meaning and value is subsumed to the demands of the market and its dictates.
Taking up Marx along with Nietzsche, Freud and Heidegger as well as some of the insights of structuralism--for instance the idea that the individual parts of a social structure, such as an individual human subject, only find meaning in their relation to the whole--the multifarious field of post-structuralismhas arrived at many of the same conclusions. The early work of the French philosopher and sociologist Michel Foucault discloses that it is most often those with power who determine what counts as knowledge, i.e. what is or is not meaningful and/or valuable. Jacques Derrida’s work has also done much in suggesting that the meanings conveyed through different cultural lenses are not directly connected to ultimate rock-bottom reality, and thus they are not necessary.
In the present day, many have argued that power and the production of meaning are almost always wedded to those on the receiving end of economic flow. Taking up this insight and following a Marxist, post-structuralist, postmodern trajectory—in the recognition that cultural meaning and value are contingent, often produced through power—Post-colonial Theory seeks to unearth the discursive relations that construct these important aspects of culture [3]. Some examples of this would be Edward Said's work on Orientalism as well as Homi Bahbha's work [4]--which makes use of many of the same post-stucturalist tools that Said does in order to argue, against Said, that the differance present in the colonial discourse itself offers opportunities for resistance and subversion. As literature and writing are often the means through which cultural meaning, value and knowledge are constructed the arena of production and consumption is especially concerned with examining literature. Yet, as with little else in the present world this is not an isolated area of study.In an essay by Philip G. Altbach, "Literary Colonialism: Books in the Third World", it becomes evident that to examine literature one must consider many other factors. In this essay Altbach examines the economic and political modalities and relations that make literature production and consumption possible in the “third world” [5]. Writing in protest can be another avenue of investigation and even resistance. In questioning Fredrick Jameson’s statement that “all third world texts are necessarily… to be read as… national allegories”, Aijaz Ahmad reveals and resists an attempt to fix meaning [6]. Ahmad’s resistance is especially important as Jameson’s authority, and thus ability to produce knowledge, comes from his powerful position as a prominent Marxist scholar and cultural theorist in the “first world” academy.
Stories
In 1971 the Latin American Catholic theologian Gustavo Gutierrez published his seminal work Teologia de la Liberacion. This work and the movement that it both represented and progressed, Liberation Theology, constitute a prime example of the processes involved in production and consumption, and in addition reveal the biases that previously determined production and consumption in this field. Not only was the movement part of a larger resistance towards what it, as well as many others, considered unjust economic policies being enforced from the first world[7]—a process that has been called a new form of colonialism—but it was also a movement that sought to define the meaning and role of a religion’s sacred text and tradition for a certain community, namely the poor of Latin America. In the movement of Latin American Liberation Theology the question over who was able to produce meaning and value was addressed head on. Fortunately Latin America had developed a rather sophisticated printing press by this time and thus texts such as Guiterrez’s could be printed locally [8].However, the most pressing questions, that of who was able to produce theological meaning and a hermeneutics of ecclesial value, were still at stake. Many Latin American theologians advocated for the use of Marxist critical analysis as a helpful tool in social examination and theological reasoning. In light of this and other routes of meticulous analysis they found that the social and economic disparities that abounded were due to structural injustices brought about by the expansion of capital and its imperial promoters. Included in this was the idea of development. This was the understanding, that came from those in the West, that if the countries of Latin America followed the paths of the Western nations; the industrial revolution, free market economies, etc., they would become as wealthy as them. Among other things one of the factors that this idea did not take note of, according to Liberation Theologians, was that the wealth of the Western nations was secured off of the resources and labor of the poorer ones [9].
Those on the other side of the imperial divide, those benefiting from the economic and political relations, could not have disagreed more. The American Christian economist, Gary North, suggested that Third-world poverty was due to, “moral perversity, a long history of demonism, and outright paganism” [10]. David Chilton of the Institute for Christian Economics believed that poverty is how “God controls heathen cultures” [11].Possibly the most well known among these was the American Catholic theologian Michael Novak who dedicated much of his work to refuting Liberation Theology. According to Novak corporate capitalism “mirrors God’s presence” on earth [12]. Ironically, Novak’s “theology of the corporation” was not built on the examination of economic and political relations, but rather on the presumption that Latin America’s lack of modernization was due to indigenous cultural factors that prevented capitalist development [13].
Through all of these engagements theologians in the West, specifically in the United States, were attempting to challenge the notion that the indigenous in Latin American had the ability and right to (1) discern the socio-politico-economic factors subjugating them and (2) speak prophetically against these forces using the rich Christian theological tradition. As has so often characterized the West, those in opposition to Liberation Theology were skeptical of anything that came into being outside of and challenged their limited, ethnocentric paradigm and all too willing to put their theology to work buttressing imperial projects.
Dreams
In his book The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama famously declared that with the fall of the Berlin Wall the end of history had come. For Fukuyama it was not that events would cease to happen but rather that the great ideological battles had ceased in the rise of liberal-democratic capitalism. While many have critiqued this Hegelian proclamation of vast ideological, audacious and ethnocentric proportions, and while Fukuyama has since revised his views, there is a kernel of truth in them. At the current moment there seems to be no projects that can counter or even exist outside of the spread of capital. Ivan Petrella, in his work The Future of Liberation Theology: An Argument and Manifesto, argues that the most substantial hurdle to be overcome by Liberation Theology is the present lack of realizable alternatives to capitalism. "In my mind," Petrella remarks, "all the other changes need to be understood in relation to the demise of the socialist alternative. For liberation theology, the fall of the Berlin Wall represents the loss of a practical alternative to capitalism. In fact the prospect of an alternative seems to have disappeared from view.” Petrella goes on to argue that present day liberation theologian’s responses to the problems Liberation Theology faces all “…suffer from a common defect—the inability to devise concrete alternatives to the current social order” [14].A dream of Petrella's is that Liberation Theology will begin to do more than offer an in depth account of poverty and instead theorize and even construct new political, social and economic alternatives to capitalism. One aspect of this is the continued production and consumption of narratives that articulate the present inequalities and recognize both their contingency and reliance on ideology. In other words, it is the Church's job to tell our history truthfully in a way that pays attention to the present inequalities and the factors contributing to them. When the Church is able to produce such a narrative it is able to both produce resistance to injustice as well as enable future generations to consume a story that truthfully articulates where the Church has been and where it needs to go. Another dream is that Liberation Theology does not die out in light of the other world spirituality that often accompanies Pentecostal Christianity--one of, if not the fastest growing expressions of the Christian faith world wide [15]. This again becomes a matter of truthful narration. The hope is that the Church will tell the story of Israel, Christ, the Church and salvation in a way that makes it clear that the Kingdom of God has indeed broken into our present reality in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and that in light of this there are new ways to live that challenge the world's greedy, fearful and dominating ways of structuring political, economic and social life. The Church should continue to produce and embody a meaningful, theologically rich, and practical critique of the world that the future generations of the Church can consume, embody and carry forth. This will necessarily be an immanent critique, however, this fact is not a hindrance. Rather, in light of the Incarnation, it should be seen as a continuation of the work of the God who entered, and continues to enter into our chaotic history to save us from ourselves._______________
[1] Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, trans. Samuel Moore (New York: Penguin Classics, 2002), 221.
[2] Marx, The Communist Manifesto, 222.
[3] See: Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, 2nd ed. (New York, N.Y.: Routedge, 2006); Graham Huggan, The Postcolonial Exotic (New York: Routledge, 2001).
[4] See: Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader.
[5] See: Bill Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader; Philip G. Altback, “Literary Colonialism: Books in the Third World,” Harvard Educational Review vol. 45 no. 2 (May 1975).
[6] Bill Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader; Aijaz Ahmad, “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the ‘National Allegory,’” Social Text 17 (Fall 1987): 84.
[7] e.g.: The 1954 CIA coup in Guatemala that ended the countries democracy and put in place a regime that would go on to kill hundreds of thousands of its citizens; the CIA role in the overthrow of Salvador Allende in Chile in 1973; US sanctioning of and possible involvement in coups in Uruguay in 1973 and Argentina in 1976; Regan's Central American wars of the 1980's; the IMF's demands for access to natural resources and high interest rates for the release of loan funds.
[8] Ahmad, “Jameson’s Rhetoric”; Ashcroft, The Post-Colonial Studies Reader.
[9]See: Jose Miguez-Bonino, “Marxist Critical Tools: Are They Helpful in Breaking the Stranglehold of Idealistic Hermeneutics?,” in Voices from the Margins: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World, 3rd. ed., ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2006), 40-48; Gustavo Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, N.Y..: Orbis Books, 1988); and, Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).
[10] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 148.
[11] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 149.
[12] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 147.
[13] Grandin, Empire’s Workshop.
[14] Ivan Petrella, The Future of Liberation Theology: An Argument and Manifesto (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004), 2.
[15] See: Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion is Christianity: The Gospel beyond the West (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Erdmans, 2003), 95-130.
Globalization, Environment, Religion
Description
The vast majority of the population of Latin America has been considered Catholic since the days of colonization. However, it is estimated that within the indigenous population only about 10% are considered orthodox Catholic in their beliefs and practices. Another 10% are considered to be orthodox native practitioners; with the remaining 80% representing some combination of Catholic and native beliefs and practices [1] (Aztec religion; Inca religion). This could possibly be attributed to the early missionary practices of Europeans. In Europe, basic teachings were given before one was received into the Catholic church. However, this wasn't the case in Latin America, where they were often baptized first and only then later (if at all) embarked on "doctrinal instruction." This, along with a strong attachment to native religious practices and beliefs, laid the groundwork for new forms of Catholicism in Latin America - ones that had elements of both Christian and indigenous religions.Events of the 1960s and 1970s had a large influence on the way the Catholic church viewed its mission in Latin America. Among other things, the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) included points that the universal church must adapt to national and local cultures, and that there should be an awareness of the presence of God in other religions. The Medellin Conference of Latin American Bishops (CELAM) in 1968 reinforced these trends. It also served to change policy from indigenista to indigena (from paternalistic to accompaniment); major themes include: Defending the land of the indigenous, learning the indigenous language, motivating self-determination, equipping the community for contact with outsiders, recovering cultural memory, providing hope, and stimulating alliances [2]. It is in this atmosphere that Liberation Theology emerged.
Besides its many contributions (namely its preferential option for the poor), Liberation Theology can claim two major influences on current global theologizing: method and context. Inductive method: begin with a description of the world and the church within it, reflect on the situation from a biblical perspective, and act to bring the world and the church more in harmony with this biblical vision. Contextual theology: attempt to express Christian faith in distinct languages, thought patterns, and other contextual expressions.
Liberation theology has also played (and continues to play) a critical role in establishing indigenous movements. (See “Stories” below)
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Stories
Liberation Theology and The Mayans: [3]
In the decades leading up to and including the 1970s the Maya involved themselves in a movement for socioeconomic and political change in Guatemala.
This social and political change was largely encouraged and influenced by the Catholic Church; specifically the ideas of liberation theology. This “preferential option for the poor” led many in Mayan communities to have a new outlook and a new approach to both religious and secular matters. A number of Catholic Maya became involved in a extensive mobilization for the poor and disenfranchised in Guatemala in 1975. Though many Mayan communities and many programs of the Catholic Church were then devastated by a campaign of violence by the ruling elite, the movement re-emerged (though slightly more cautious) in the mid-1980s.Following the violence of the late 1970s and early 1980s the Catholic-Maya relationship underwent a time of re-examination. Individuals and groups from both sides expressed value in the relationship, but also failures and shortcomings in the church’s past policies. Specifically, they condemned the church’s practices in devaluing and undermining traditional Mayan culture – especially the religious aspects. This has resulted in adaptations to the church’s policy in order to demonstrate a greater respect for the Mayan culture, and includes, “a tentative exploration of the possible ‘Mayanization’ of Catholicism” [4].
Liberation Theology and the Pastoral Indigena: [5]
Pastoral indigena, or indigenous pastoral, is a pastoral program and orientation directed explicitly at the special needs of working with the indigenous communities. It was adopted by bishops in the Oaxacan Catholic Church (Mexico) in the early 1970s as an attempt at continuing ideas from Vatican II (transforming the church’s engagement with indigenous communities). Throughout the 1970s there were opportunities for clergy from the Oaxacan diocese to meet and discuss difficulties in “evangelizing” the indigenous communities where they worked. One of the main difficulties the clergy admitted to was that their communities consisted of a large number of non-Spanish speaking people. Similarly, the clergy were ignorant of the indigenous culture in which they worked.
In response to this, a number of entities were established. In 1972, the Centro Ecclesial Diocesana del Pastoral indigena de Oaxaca (Indigenous Pastoral Center, or CEDIPIO) was established in Oaxaca City (picture right), with two main objectives: to promote and coordinate the pastoral indigenista; to offer a more holistic training to the priests and nuns that would be working with the population. Also, the Seminario Regional del Sureste (Regional Seminary of the Southeast, or SERESURE) which was established in 1969 was an important support for liberationist church agents. The seminary provided a practical hands-on training for priests that would be working in the rural indigenous communities.One former seminarian said, “There were intense months of study and then other months in equal number of intense work with the people. It was fantastic.” Guided by the idea of the pastoral indigena, priests directed their attention not only to the religious needs of their communities, but also to, “involving themselves in their struggles, anguishes, and hopes and, from the inside at promoting a liberating evangelization” [6]. This liberating evangelization is one in which the indigenous people are active in their own evangelization and development; a typical liberation theology emphasis.
Dreams
The danger in Liberation theology is that people have been empowered to read scriptural narratives for themselves and make their reading central to theology and political action. The danger is that these communities will read the narratives and not the history behind them [7]. A dream would be that theologians from various backgrounds would continue to meet together and influence and be influenced by one another - Liberation theologians, Indigenous theologians, Feminist theologians, Catholic theologians, Protestant theologians, etc.
_____________________
[1] E.L. Cleary and T.J. Steigenga, eds., Resurgent Voices in Latin America (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 7.[2] E.L. Cleary and T.J. Steigenga, eds., Resurgent Voices in Latin America, 10.
[3] Bruce J. Calder, "Interwoven Histories" in Resurgent voices in Latin America, ed. E.L. Cleary and T.J. Steigenga (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 93-124.
[4] Bruce J. Calder, "Interwoven Histories" in Resurgent voices in Latin America, 102.
[5] Norget, Kristin. "Knowing Where We Enter" in Resurgent voices in Latin America, ed. E.L. Cleary and T.J. Steigenga (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 154-186.
[6] Norget, Kristin. "Knowing Where We Enter" in Resurgent voices in Latin America, 161.
[7] Robert A. Warrior, "A Native American Perspective: Canaanites, Cowboys, and Indians" in Voices from the Margin, ed. R.J. Sugirtharajah (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2006), 239.
Diaspora, Place
Description
The Latin American diaspora to the U.S. is larger than the amount of European immigrants who arrived at the turn of the 20th century [1]. 80% of current immigrants to the U.S. come from Asia and Latin America [2]. Starting in the 1950’s many people left due for financial reason while tens of thousands fled dictatorships in “the cone” of South America in the 1970s. As economies shifted from largely agricultural to industrial the “exodus of mostly educated, upper and middle-class immigrants from South America during this time (1960-70s) was (and still is) certainly enhanced by the unstable economic structure of many South American countries" [3]. In 1970 there was a change in immigration laws that led to an increase in immigrants from Latin America to the U.S. [4]. Over the last 20 years, the majority of migrants now go to the United States and Western Europe, rather than other Latin American countries [5]. “Rather than to flee political oppression, most of these migrants leave because of lack of economic opportunity, or to escape crime and violence. To some observers of the region, this exodus represents an indictment of the failure of democracy or of economic reform -- those who can, vote with their feet” [6]. As of 1998, there were 1 million South Americans living in the U.S. and 1/3 of these entered the U.S. in the 1980’s [7]. From 1970 to 2000, the proportion of migrants from Latin America living in other parts of the world decreased from 7.1% to 3.4%. As of 2002, Brazil and Chile were the only countries that had little net emigration [8].Recently there has also been a religious diaspora of Catholics in Latin America to Pentecostal churches, partly due to the mass exodus of Latin Americans from their countries. This has left behind a new generation who has been very receptive to new churches that speak to their everyday lives. One source claims that as many as 9,000 Roman Catholics convert to Pentecostalism each day across Latin America alone.
Stories
Catholic churches are hiring more charismatic priests to help stop the diaspora of Catholics to Pentecostalism. Catholic churches are restructuring towards more Pentecostal worship forms [9]. Brazil, 89% Catholic in 1980, is now only 64% Catholic and has between 20 - 24 million Pentecostals. “Millions of Brazilians, relying on the Bible, found the courage to break with the almost absolute authority of the clergy” [10]. It has been estimated that 1 in 10 practicing Roman Catholics now also identify as charismatic or Pentecostal. A wise man once said, “liberation theology opted for the poor, and the poor opted for Pentecostalism” [11].
Dreams
Currently 10.4% of people in Latin America earn less than $1 per day. Migrants from Latin America could help their home countries in several ways. Traditionally they send money home for their families to survive. Governments need to figure out a way to channel this money to invest in the country’s economy, to help provide a better future. One way that Mexican banks are doing is to offer remittance bonds backed by money sent from migrants [12]. In addition the UN Development Program has a new plan to send qualified migrants home for short periods of time to teach, research and consult in their home countries [13]. Governments could also work with their diasporic communities in other places to develop a tourism plan to the home countries [14]. Technology also offers new innovative ways for the diasporas to reconnect with their homelands [15]. Many of the most productive citizens have fled their countries and could use technology to help train future leaders in the home countries. For example Ecuador's government says that 10,000 teachers have left the country since 1998 and over 70% of Peruvians finishing a PhD in American universities intend to stay in the United States, according to government figures [16].
______________________
1. Michele Reis, “Theorizing Diaspora: Perspectives on 'Classical' and 'Contemporary' Diaspora," International Migration, vol. 42.2 (2004): 20, 41-60.
2. Ronald Takiki, A Different Mirror (New York, N.Y.: Hachette Books, 1993), 421.
3. David G. Guitierrez, ed., The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960 (New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 2004).
4. Michael Emerson, People of a Dream: Multiracial Congregations in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008), 23.
5. Author unknown, "The Americas: Making the most of an exodus; Emigration from Latin America," The Economist, vol. 362 iss. 8261: 41-42.
6. Himilce Novas, Everything You Need to Know About Latino History (New York, N.Y.: Plume, 1998), 13-14.
7. Himilce Novas, Everything You Need to Know About Latino History, 13-14.
8. The Economist.
9. Ryan Bolger, Lecture from Church in Mission Class, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA. 2008.
10. R. Sugirtharajah, Voices from the Margin (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2006), 433.
11. Ryan Bolger.
12. The Economist.
13. The Economist.
14. Michelle Reis.
15. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, 2nd ed. (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2006), 97
16. The Economist.
Language, Body & Performance
Description
The issue of how the body has been used to represent both oppression and resistance within colonialism must be addressed in order to adequately understand liberation theology within Latin America. By the 1980’s, there were more than 80,000 base communities of lay people reviewing Scripture and reviewing the Bible from the standpoint of liberation theology. These communities consisted of the poor and included a strong educational philosophy. As a result, people were challenged to read Scripture from within their own context, empower one another, and take decisive action to enact the principles they saw in Scripture. Liberation theology focuses upon economics as place for such transformation. As a result, this theology has been labeled by many as Marxist. Gutierrez's basis for theology, however, was not Marxist (though there are parallels between Marxism and liberation theology). Liberation theology has not emphasized overthrowing governments, but advocacy within impoverished conditions. The body is a central location for the differences between oppressors and oppressed to be played out. In the 1950s, the Catholic church even labeled the Latin American church as a "poor church." What they did not realize, however, was that this was largely a racial issue. In the Brazilian slums, known as ‘favelas’, the poor are often of darker color. Moreover, the darker skinned make less money on average than the lighter skinned. In the Latin American context, the poor are often the darker skinned. In large part, this is a continued legacy of colonialism. The supporters of liberation theology, because they are often the poor, also stand out because of their bodies."One of the most subtle demonstrations of the power of language is the means by which it provides, through the function of naming, a technique for knowing a colonized people or place" [1]. This partially summarizes how the text’s discussion is focused upon the power of language within culture, particularly the English language within colonialism. There is a central debate that is exemplified in the text to whether the opportunities that come with knowing the English language are worth having when one’s native language is less used and, thus, one’s native culture is less represented. Is the fact that the majority of people within the world wanting to learn English, and many of them making efforts to, evidence of a different form of colonialism continuing on today? As mentioned prior, many supporters of liberation theology within Latin America are illiterate and, thus, must depend on other’s interpretation of Scripture to read the Bible with this liberation emphasis.
Stories
The Caste System in Historical Latin America
For hundreds of years, only whites could be priests in Latin America. Even after thousands upon thousands had come to the Christian faith and began to make a distinctively Latin American Christianity. Until the 1800s, ordination was only for Europeans and, thus, Latin America had an untrained clergy for nearly two hundred years. As a result, there was conversion without formation and populations making up their own versions of the faith without the help of the church. Furthermore, there was an informal caste system within South America with over one hundred categories of race. Europeans were the highest in this system and those in slavery were among the lowest, then affecting segregation in the church ordination process further.
Dreams
Gustavo GutiérrezWhen Dominican Fr. Gustavo Gutiérrez spoke at DePaul University on October 30, 2008, he expressed that hope that "the complexity of poverty is better grasped today, meaning not just its material expression, but also forms of poverty based on culture, race and gender" [2].
______________
[1] Ashcroft, The Postcolonial Studies Reader (New York, N.Y.: Routeledge, 2004), 261
[2] Liberation theology Gutierrez says hope takes work, National Catholic Reporter, NCRonline.org
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Edited by JimChapman
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Keyword tags:
Catholic
Latin-American
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